Editing Thomas Cromwell (section)

==King's chief minister==
[[File:Arms of Thomas Cromwell, Baron Cromwell.svg|thumb|Cromwell's coat of arms from 1532 to 1537{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|pp=38–39, note 81}}]]

In April 1534, Henry confirmed Cromwell as his principal secretary and chief minister, a position which he had held for some time in all but name.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|pp=247; 518}} Cromwell immediately took steps to enforce the legislation just passed by Parliament. Before the members of both houses returned home on 30 March, they were required to swear an oath accepting the Act of Succession: all the King's subjects were now required to swear to the legitimacy of the marriage and, by implication, to accept the King's new powers and the break from Rome. On 13 April, the London clergy accepted the oath. On the same day, the commissioners offered it to Sir Thomas More and [[John Fisher]], Bishop of Rochester, both of whom refused it. More was taken into custody on the same day and was moved to the Tower of London on 17 April. Fisher joined him there four days later. On 7 May Cromwell led a deputation from the commissioners to Fisher and More, to persuade them to accept the Act and save themselves. This failed and, within a month, both prisoners were executed.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|p=333}}

On 18 April, an order was issued that all citizens of London were to swear their acceptance of the Oath of Succession. Similar orders were issued throughout the country. When Parliament reconvened in November, Cromwell brought in the most significant revision of the treason laws since 1352, making it treasonous to speak rebellious words against the Royal Family, to deny their titles, or to call the King a heretic, tyrant, infidel, or usurper. The [[Act of Supremacy 1534]] ([[26 Hen. 8]]. c. 1) also clarified the King's position as head of the church and the [[First Fruits and Tenths Act 1534]] ([[26 Hen. 8]]. c. 3) substantially increased clerical taxes. Cromwell also strengthened his own control over the Church.

During November 1534, another provision of the Act of Succession was in preparation: the appointment of three ''vicegerentes'' to supervise all ecclesiastical institutions. When the measure was put into effect on 21 January 1535,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ayris |first1=Paul |title=Thomas Cranmer, churchman and scholar |date=1993 |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Rochester, NY |isbn=0-85115-549-9 |page=125}}</ref> however, only one name remained: that of Cromwell.{{efn|The other two under consideration had been [[John Tregonwell]] and [[Thomas Bedyll]]}} The King appointed him Royal Vicegerent and Vicar-General, and issued a warrant to authorise a [[Canonical visitation|visitation]] of all the country's churches, monasteries and clergy. Neville Williams explains that as Vicegerent in spiritual affairs, Cromwell held sway over church doctrine and religious policy, while from the Vicar General title, he drew his authority over monasteries and other church institutions.{{sfn|Williams |1975|pp=193, 211–212}} By September 1535 Cromwell had appointed his own officials for church administration, with authority over the archbishops of Canterbury and York, to oversee all church affairs. He never declared that this visitation was ever complete, so he retained its extensive powers in his own hands.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|p=273, 502}} In this capacity, Cromwell conducted a census in 1535 to enable the government to evaluate and tax church property more effectively.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

A lasting achievement of Cromwell's vicegerency was his direction of Autumn 1538 that every parish in the country should securely maintain a record of all christenings, marriages and burials. Although intended as a means to identify [[Anabaptist]]s (dissenting religious refugees from the Low Countries and elsewhere who did not practise infant baptism) the measure proved to be of great benefit to the posterity of English historians.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|p=288}}

===Fall of Anne Boleyn===
[[File:Hans Holbein the Younger - Jane Seymour, Queen of England - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Jane Seymour]] by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]]]]
The final session of the Reformation Parliament began on 4 February 1536. By 18 March, the [[Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535]] ([[27 Hen. 8]]. c. 28), an act for the suppression of the Lesser Monasteries, those with a gross income of less than £200 per annum, had passed both houses.<ref>{{Cite ODNB |title=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |date=23 September 2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6769 |pages=ref:odnb/6769 |editor-last=Matthew |editor-first=H. C. G. |place=Oxford |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/6769 |access-date=16 February 2023 |editor2-last=Harrison |editor2-first=B.}}</ref> This caused a clash with Anne Boleyn, formerly one of Cromwell's strongest allies, who wanted the proceeds of the dissolution used for educational and charitable purposes, not paid into the King's coffers.{{sfn|Ives|2005|pp=307–310}}

Anne instructed her chaplains to preach against the Vicegerent, and in a blistering sermon on Passion Sunday, 2 April 1536, her [[almoner]], [[John Skypp]], denounced Cromwell and his fellow Privy Councillors before the entire court. Skypp's diatribe was intended to persuade courtiers and Privy Councillors to change the advice they had been giving the King and to reject the temptation of personal gain. Skypp was called before the council and accused of malice, slander, presumption, lack of charity, sedition, treason, disobedience to the gospel, attacking "the great posts, pillars and columns sustaining and holding up the commonwealth" and inviting anarchy.{{sfn|Ives|2005|pp=307–310}} Cromwell took no action against Skypp beyond the unsympathetic questioning, and he remained as the Queen's almoner, attending her when she was awaiting execution in the [[Tower of London|Tower]].{{sfn|Schofield|2011|pp=176–179}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|p=331}}

Anne, who had many enemies at court, had never been popular with the people and had so far failed to produce a male heir. The King was becoming impatient, now enamoured of the young [[Jane Seymour]] and being encouraged by Anne's enemies, particularly Sir [[Nicholas Carew (courtier)|Nicholas Carew]] and the Seymours. In circumstances that have divided historians, Anne was accused of adultery with: [[Mark Smeaton]], a musician of the royal household; Sir [[Henry Norris (courtier)|Henry Norris]], the King's [[groom of the stool]] and one of his closest friends; Sir [[Francis Weston]]; Sir [[William Brereton (courtier)|William Brereton]]; and her brother, [[George Boleyn, 2nd Viscount Rochford]].{{sfn|Lipscomb|2013|pp=18–24}}{{sfn|Schofield|2011|pp=192–205}} The Imperial Ambassador, [[Eustace Chapuys]], wrote to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] that: <blockquote>he himself [Cromwell] has been authorised and commissioned by the king to prosecute and bring to an end the mistress's trial, to do which he had taken considerable trouble... He set himself to devise and conspire the said affair.{{sfn|Lipscomb|2013|p=23}}{{sfn|Calendar of State Papers, Spain|loc=5(2), [https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/spain/vol5/no2/pp137-162 61], and footnote 1}}{{sfn|Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII|loc=10, [https://www.british-history.ac.uk/letters-papers-hen8/vol10/pp440-470 1069]}}</blockquote> Regardless of the role Cromwell played in Anne Boleyn's fall, and his confessed animosity to her, Chapuys's letter states that Cromwell claimed that he was acting with the King's authority. Some historians, such as [[Alison Weir]] and [[Susan Bordo]], are convinced that her fall and execution were engineered by Cromwell,{{sfn|Weir|1991|p=69: "[…]Cromwell was ambitiously plotting[…]no less than the removal of the Queen."}}{{sfn|Bordo|2014|p=93: "[…]the plot against Anne was orchestrated by Thomas Cromwell without Henry's instigation or encouragement."}} while others, such as [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]] and John Schofield, accept that the King instigated the process.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|p=315:&nbsp;"So Henry put Cromwell and Wriothesley secretly to work […] he needed agents to turn the rumours into a case."}}{{sfn|Schofield|2011|p=170: "Cromwell became involved in the royal marital drama only when Henry ordered him onto the case."}} [[Alexander Alesius]], a theologian and associate of Cromwell, wrote that it had indeed been Cromwell who hinted to Henry of Anne's infidelity, but the King had in turn instructed Cromwell to turn the rumours into proceedings.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|p=315}}

The Queen and her brother stood trial on Monday 15 May, while the four others accused with them were condemned on the Friday beforehand. The men were executed on 17 May 1536 and, on the same day, Cranmer declared Henry's marriage to Anne invalid, a ruling that illegitimised their daughter, [[Elizabeth I|Princess Elizabeth]]. Two days later, Anne herself was executed. On 30 May, the King married Jane Seymour. On 8 June, a new Parliament passed the [[Second Succession Act]], securing the rights of Queen Jane's heirs to the throne.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

===Baron Cromwell and Lord Privy Seal===
[[File:Arms of Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex.svg|thumb|Cromwell's [[coat of arms]] after his son's marriage, in 1537, to Queen [[Jane Seymour|Jane]]'s sister, [[Elizabeth Seymour, Lady Cromwell|Elizabeth, Lady Ughtred]]{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qLBwDQAAQBAJ&q=%22six+fleurs+de+lys%22 427–8], pl. 7, 8.}}|alt=color illustration of Cromwell's coat of arms]]
[[File:Thomas Cromwell, Coat of Arms, 1537.png|thumb|Cromwell's [[coat of arms]] as Knight of the Garter]]

[[File:Thomas Cromwell medal, 1538 side 2.png|thumb|Portrait medal made for Thomas Cromwell in 1538. Reverse: armorial shield of Cromwell, being two coats quarterly within the Garter.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qLBwDQAAQBAJ&q=%22six+fleurs+de+lys%22 427–428], pl. 7, 8.}}]]
Cromwell's position was now stronger than ever. He succeeded Anne Boleyn's father, [[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire]], as [[Lord Privy Seal]] on 2 July 1536, resigning the office of [[Master of the Rolls]], which he had held since 8 October 1534. On 8 July 1536, he was raised to the peerage as [[Baron Cromwell|Baron Cromwell of Wimbledon]].{{sfn|Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII|loc=11, [https://www.british-history.ac.uk/letters-papers-hen8/vol11/pp73-89 202(3) and 202(14)]}}

===Religious reform===
Cromwell orchestrated the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] and visitations to the universities and colleges in 1535, which had strong links to the church. This resulted in the dispersal and destruction of many books deemed "popish" and "superstitious". This has been described as "easily the greatest single disaster in English literary history". [[Oxford University]] was left without a library collection until Sir [[Thomas Bodley]]'s donation in 1602.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SochIc9cRGQC&pg=PT58|title=Mediaeval Education and the Reformation|author=John Lawson|date=15 April 2013|publisher=Routledge |access-date=17 November 2015|isbn=9781135031091}}</ref>

In July 1536, the first attempt was made to clarify religious doctrine after the break with Rome. Bishop [[Edward Foxe]] tabled proposals in Convocation, with strong backing from Cromwell and Cranmer, which the King later endorsed as the [[Ten Articles]] and which were printed in August 1536. Cromwell circulated injunctions for their enforcement that went beyond the Articles themselves, provoking opposition in September and October in [[Lincolnshire]] and then throughout the six northern counties. These widespread popular uprisings of the [[laity]],{{sfn|Hoyle|2001|p=5}} collectively known as the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]], found support among the gentry and even the nobility.{{sfn|Bucholz|Key|2004|p=77}}

The rebels' grievances were wide-ranging, but the most significant was the suppression of the monasteries, blamed on the King's "evil counsellors", principally Cromwell and Cranmer. One of the leaders of the rebellion was [[Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Darcy]], who gave Cromwell the prophetic warning during his interrogation in the Tower: "[...] men who have been in cases like with their prince as ye be now have come at the last to the same end that ye would now bring me unto.".{{sfn|Dodds|1915|p=186}} The suppression of the risings spurred further Reformation measures. In February 1537, Cromwell convened a [[vicegerent]]ial [[synod]] of bishops and academics. The synod was co-ordinated by Cranmer and Foxe, and they prepared a draft document by July: ''[[The Institution of a Christian Man]]'', more commonly known as the [[Bishops' Book#Bishops' Book (1537)|Bishops' Book]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2018|pp=411–413}} By October, it was in circulation, although the King had not yet given it his full assent. However, Cromwell's success in Church politics was offset by the fact that his political influence had been weakened by the emergence of a [[Privy Council]], a body of nobles and office-holders that first came together to suppress the Pilgrimage of Grace. The King confirmed his support of Cromwell by appointing him to the [[Order of the Garter]] on 5 August 1537, but Cromwell was nonetheless forced to accept the existence of an executive body dominated by his conservative opponents.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

In January 1538, Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what the opponents of the old religion termed "idolatry"; statues, [[rood screen]]s, and images were attacked, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. [[Thomas Becket]] at Canterbury. Early in September, Cromwell also completed a new set of vicegerential injunctions declaring open war on "pilgrimages, feigned relics or images, or any such superstitions" and commanding that "one book of the whole Bible in English" be set up in every church. Moreover, following the "voluntary" surrender of the remaining smaller monasteries during the previous year, the larger monasteries were now also "invited" to surrender throughout 1538, a process legitimised in the 1539 session of Parliament and completed in the following year.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

====Resistance to further religious reform====
The King was becoming increasingly unhappy about the extent of religious changes, and the conservative faction was gaining strength at court. Cromwell took the initiative against his enemies. He imprisoned [[Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter]], Sir [[Edward Neville (courtier)|Edward Neville]], and Sir [[Nicholas Carew (courtier)|Nicholas Carew]] on charges of treason in November 1538 (the "[[Exeter Conspiracy]]"), using evidence acquired from Sir [[Geoffrey Pole]] under interrogation in the Tower. Sir Geoffrey, "broken in spirit", was pardoned but the others were executed.{{sfn|Bernard|2007|pp=412–426}}

On 17 December 1538, the [[French Inquisition|Inquisitor-General of France]] forbade the printing of [[Miles Coverdale]]'s [[Great Bible]]. Then, Cromwell persuaded the King of France to release the unfinished books so that printing could continue in England. The first edition was finally available in April 1539. The publication of the Great Bible was one of Cromwell's principal achievements, being the first authoritative version in English.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

The King, however, continued to resist further Reformation measures. A Parliamentary committee was established to examine doctrine, and the [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Duke of Norfolk]] presented six questions on 16 May 1539 for the House to consider, which were duly passed as the Act of [[Six Articles (1539)|Six Articles]] shortly before the session ended on 28 June. The Six Articles reaffirmed a traditional view of the Mass, the Sacraments, and the priesthood.{{sfn|Leithead|2008}}

===Anne of Cleves===
{{stack|[[File:Anne of Cleves, by Hans Holbein the Younger.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|''[[Anne of Cleves]]'', by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] ({{Circa|1539}})]]}}
Henry's third wife, Jane, died in 1537, less than two weeks after the birth of her only child, the future [[Edward VI]]. In early October 1539, the King finally accepted Cromwell's suggestion that he should marry [[Anne of Cleves]], the sister of [[William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg]], partly on the basis of a portrait which [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]] had painted of her. On 27 December, Anne of Cleves arrived at Dover. On New Year's Day 1540, the King met her at [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]], at first disguised, where he embraced and kissed Anne, though Anne "regarded him little".{{sfn|Wriothesley|1875|p=[https://archive.org/details/achronicleengla04hamigoog/page/n172/mode/2up?view=theater 110]}} He later claimed to be repelled by her physically: "I like her not!" The wedding ceremony, Archbishop Cranmer officiating, took place on 6 January in the Queen's Closet at [[Palace of Placentia|Greenwich Palace]], but the marriage was not consummated.{{sfn|Starkey|2003|p=631}} Henry said that he found it impossible to enjoy conjugal relations with a woman whom he found so unattractive.{{sfn|Weir|1991|pp=377–378, 386–388, 395, 405, 410–411}}

===Earl of Essex===
On 18 April 1540, Henry granted Cromwell the [[Earl of Essex|earldom of Essex]] and the senior court office of [[Lord Great Chamberlain]].{{sfn|Leithead|2008}} Despite these signs of royal favour, Cromwell's tenure as the King's chief minister was nearing its end. The King's anger at being manoeuvered into marrying Anne of Cleves was the opportunity Cromwell's conservative opponents, most notably the Duke of Norfolk, had been hoping for.{{sfn|Weir|1991|pp=412, 418}}