Editing Third Anglo-Dutch War (section)

=== Naval battles ===
[[File:The First Battle of Schooneveld, 28 May 1673 van de Velde RMG BHC0305.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|''Battle of Schooneveld'' by [[Willem van de Velde the Elder|Van de Velde the Elder]]]]

In the first two wars, both navies, particularly the Dutch, employed aggressive tactics that often resulted in heavy ship losses for the defeated side.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|pp=130, 138}} In the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the priority was to minimise losses, and it was common for fleets to engage using the "[[Line of battle|line-ahead]]" formation, an essentially defensive approach; despite inflicting considerable damage, neither side lost any ships at the Texel.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|p=148}}

When the Water Line froze during the winter of 1673, the French were unable to break it,{{sfn|Troost|2001|p=100}} thwarted by thin ice and companies of Dutch sailors equipped with [[ice skate]]s, under [[Johan de Liefde]].{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=255}} Attempts in the spring to drain the northern part of the line or cross on rafts also proved unsuccessful.{{sfn|Panhuysen|2009|pp=337–343}} With an eastern approach impractical, the Royal Navy was ordered to blockade the coast in co-operation with a French squadron; if possible, they were to land an invasion force, although how this would be accomplished was unclear.{{sfn|Rodger|2004|p=81}} Lacking experience of amphibious operations, this meant capturing a Dutch port, despite limited knowledge of the dangerous [[shoals]] protecting their approaches.{{sfn|Doedens|Mulder|2016|p=169}}

[[File:Edward Spragge (c 1629 - 1673), Admiral of the Blue, by Peter Cross.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|Sir [[Edward Spragge]], killed at the [[Battle of Texel]]]]

Hoping to unnerve the Dutch, Prince Rupert leaked information claiming his fleet was accompanied by ships carrying an [[Blackheath Army|invasion force]]; in reality, it remained in [[Great Yarmouth]], and was in any case insufficient for the task.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=260}} In May, the English fleet of 81 ships approached the Dutch coast, while De Ruyter's 55 ships took up a defensive position in the [[Schooneveld]].{{sfn|Rodger|2004|p=83}} Early on 7 June, Prince Rupert detached a light squadron, hoping to tempt De Ruyter into battle where the Allies could use their superior numbers. The alternative was forcing the Dutch fleet into [[Hellevoetsluis]], where they could be blockaded while transports brought troops over to assault [[Brielle|Den Briel]] or [[Vlissingen]].{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=261}}

However, De Ruyter's speed of response allowed him to attack before the main Allied fleet was ready, launching the [[Battle of Schooneveld|First Battle of the Schooneveld]].{{sfn|Jenkins|1973|p=52}} At Solebay the previous year, the French squadron had sailed in the opposite direction to that of the English; to counter accusations this had been deliberate, they now formed the centre squadron. However, their inexperience and poor positioning left gaps which allowed De Ruyter to sail through the Allied centre.{{sfn|Jenkins|1973|p=52}}{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=262}}

The French commanders had been ordered by Louis not to risk their ships, but focus on learning from the English and Dutch.{{sfn|Doedens|Mulder|2016|p=172}} They therefore disengaged, later writing enthusiastic reports about the tactical genius of the manoeuvre used by De Ruyter.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=261}} Their defection threatened to cut off the Allied rear under Sir [[Edward Spragge]]; he took his own squadron to attack Tromp, who was also being engaged by Rupert, but fear of running aground meant this was not done with any conviction. Now split into four parts and in considerable confusion, the Allies withdrew after nine hours of fighting; they were not pursued, since De Ruyter decided not to take any unnecessary risks.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|pp=262–263}}

[[File:Battle of Texel August 21 1673 (Slag bij Kijkduin) - Nightly battle between Cornelis Tromp and Eward Spragg (Willem van de Velde II, 1707).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The Battle of Texel'' (1707) by [[Willem van de Velde the Younger]]]]

The Allies continued to hold their position off the Dutch coast; on 14 June, De Ruyter took advantage of favourable winds and launched the [[Battle of Schooneveld|Second Battle of the Schooneveld]]. Once again, this caused chaos in the unprepared Allied fleet, which suffered severe damage and returned to the [[Thames]] for repairs.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|pp=264–265}} In late July, Rupert put to sea again, hoping to draw the Dutch north by feinting against The Hague or [[Den Helder]]; although De Ruyter preferred to remain where he was, he was ordered out to escort a valuable incoming [[Dutch East India Company]] treasure fleet.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|pp=268–269}} While both sides suffered severe damage in the resulting [[Battle of Texel]], Prince Rupert was forced to return home for repairs.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=272}}

The conduct of the French led to widespread recriminations and accusations they had failed to support their English colleagues. Whether this was fair remains a matter of dispute; in all three battles, De Ruyter took advantage of Allied deficiencies in fighting instructions and signalling.{{sfn|Davies|2008|p=268}} Regardless, it deepened suspicions between the English and French, further undercutting popular support for the war, while ending any hopes of starving the Dutch through a naval blockade. The result was an overwhelming strategic victory for the Dutch.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=272}} even though four ships of the Spice Fleet had fallen into Allied hands.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=274}} For De Ruyter, the successful campaign, by repelling attacks by much superior fleets to save his homeland, had been the highlight of his career, as the English readily acknowledged: [[James II of England|the Duke of York]] concluded that among admirals, "he was the greatest that ever to that time was in the world".{{sfn|Rodger|2004|p=85}} The English had to abandon their plans for an invasion from the sea,{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=272}} and the large costs of repair troubled Parliament.

On 24 August 1673, the Dutch recaptured the city [[New Amsterdam]] (renamed "New York" by the English) under [[Admiral]] [[Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest]] and Captain [[Anthony Colve]].<ref>Roosevelt, Theodore. "[http://www.bartleby.com/171/4.html IV. New Amsterdam becomes New York The Beginning of English Rule. 1664–1674]", in ''New York: A Sketch of the City's Social, Political, and Commercial Progress from the First Dutch Settlement to Recent Times'', (New York, Charles Scribner & Sons, 1906).</ref>  Evertsen renamed the city "[[New Orange]]".<ref>Barrevald, Dirk J. ''From New Amsterdam to New York: The Founding of New York by the Dutch in July 1625''. (Lincoln, Nebraska, Writers Club Press, 2001), 248.</ref> However, Dutch rule ended on 10 November 1674 with the order to implement the provisions of the [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Treaty of Westminster]].