Editing Tao (section)

== Linguistic aspects ==
{{see also|Daoism–Taoism romanization issue}}
The Chinese character {{zhi|c=道}} is highly polysemous: its historical alternate pronunciation as {{zhi|p=dǎo}} possessed an additional connotation of 'guide'. The history of the character includes details of orthography and semantics, as well as a possible Proto-Indo-European etymology, in addition to more recent loaning into English and other world languages.

===Orthography===
{{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical
|image1=道-bronze.svg|caption1=[[Bronze script]]
|image2=道-silk.svg|caption2=[[Bamboo and wooden slips|Chu slip and silk script]]
|image3=道-bigseal.svg|caption3=[[Large seal script]]
|image4=道-seal.svg|caption4=[[Small seal script]]
}}
"Tao" is written with the Chinese character {{zhi|c=道}} using both [[Traditional Chinese|traditional]] and [[Simplified Chinese|simplified]] characters. The traditional graphical interpretation of {{zhi|c=道}} dates back to the ''[[Shuowen Jiezi]]'' dictionary published in 121 CE, which describes it as a rare "compound ideogram" or "[[Chinese character classification#Ideogrammatic compounds|ideographic compound]]". According to the ''Shuowen Jiezi'', {{zhi|c=道}} combines the 'go' radical {{zhi|c=辶}} (a variant of {{zhi|c=辵}}) with {{zhi|c=首|l=head}}. This construction signified a "head going" or "leading the way".

"Tao" is graphically distinguished between its earliest nominal meaning of 'way', 'road', 'path', and the later verbal sense of 'say'. It should also be contrasted with {{zhi|c=導|l=lead the way', 'guide', 'conduct', 'direct}}. The simplified character {{zhi|s=导}} for {{zhi|c=導}} has {{zhi|c=巳|l=6th of the 12 [[Earthly Branches]]}} in place of {{zhi|c=道}}.

The earliest written forms of "Tao" are [[bronzeware script]] and [[seal script]] characters from the [[Zhou dynasty]] (1045–256 BCE) bronzes and writings. These ancient forms more clearly depict the {{zhi|c=首|l=head}} element as hair above a face. Some variants interchange the 'go' radical {{zhi|c=辵}} with {{zhi|c=行|l=go', 'road}}, with the original bronze "crossroads" depiction written in the seal character with two {{zhi|c=彳}} and {{zhi|c=亍|l=footprints}}.

Bronze scripts for {{zhi|c=道}} occasionally include an element of {{zhi|c=手|l=hand}} or {{zhi|c=寸|l=thumb', 'hand}}, which occurs in {{zhi|c=導|l=lead}}. The linguist [[Peter A. Boodberg]] explained,
<blockquote>This "''tao'' with the hand element" is usually identified with the modern character {{zhi|c=導}} ''tao'' < ''d'ôg'', 'to lead,', 'guide', 'conduct', and considered to be a ''derivative'' or verbal cognate of the noun ''tao'', "way," "path." The evidence just summarized would indicate rather that "''tao'' with the hand" is but a ''variant'' of the basic ''tao'' and that the word itself combined both nominal and verbal aspects of the etymon. This is supported by textual examples of the use of the primary ''tao'' in the verbal sense "to lead" (e. g., ''Analects'' 1.5; 2.8) and seriously undermines the unspoken assumption implied in the common translation of Tao as "way" that the concept is essentially a nominal one. Tao would seem, then, to be etymologically a more dynamic concept than we have made it translation-wise. It would be more appropriately rendered by "lead way" and "lode" ("way," "course," "journey," "leading," "guidance"; cf. "lodestone" and "lodestar"), the somewhat obsolescent deverbal noun from "to lead."{{sfnp|Boodberg|1957|p=599}}</blockquote>
These Confucian ''[[Analects]]'' citations of ''dao'' verbally meaning 'to guide', 'to lead' are: "The Master said, 'In guiding a state of a thousand chariots, approach your duties with reverence and be trustworthy in what you say" and "The Master said, 'Guide them by edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame."{{sfnp|Lau|1979|loc=p. 59,  1.5; p. 63, 2.8}}

===Phonology===
In modern [[Standard Chinese]], {{zhi|c=道}}'s two primary pronunciations are [[Mandarin phonology#Tones|tonally]] differentiated between falling tone {{zhi|p=dào|l=way, path}} and dipping tone {{zhi|p=dǎo|l=guide, lead}} (usually written as {{zhi|c=導}}).

Besides the common specifications {{zhi|c=道|p=dào|l=way}} and {{zhi|c=道|p=dǎo}} (with variant {{zhi|c=導|l=guide}}), {{zhi|c=道}} has a rare additional pronunciation with the level tone, {{zhi|p=dāo}}, seen in the regional ''[[chengyu]]'' {{zhi|c=神神道道|p=shénshendāodāo|l=odd, bizarre}}, a [[reduplication]] of {{zhi|c=道}} and {{zhi|c=神|p=shén|l=spirit, god}} from northeast China.

In [[Middle Chinese]] ({{circa|6th–10th centuries CE}}) [[tone name]] categories, {{zhi|c=道}} and {{zhi|c=導}} were {{zhi|c=去聲|p=qùshēng|l=departing tone}} and {{zhi|c=上聲|p=shǎngshēng|l=rising tone}}. [[Historical linguistics|Historical linguists]] have reconstructed {{abbr|MC|Middle Chinese}} {{zhi|c=道|l=way}} and {{zhi|c=導|l=guide}} as {{Transliteration|ltc|d'âu-}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|d'âu}} ([[Bernhard Karlgren]]),{{sfnp|Karlgren |1957|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}} {{Transliteration|ltc|dau}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|dau}}{{sfnp|Zhou|1972|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}} {{Transliteration|ltc|daw<sup>'</sup>}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|daw<sup>h</sup>}},{{sfnp|Pulleyblank|1991|p=248}} {{Transliteration|ltc|daw<sup>X</sup>}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|daws}} (William H. Baxter),{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=753}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|dâu<sup>B</sup>}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|dâu<sup>C</sup>}}.{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}}

In [[Old Chinese]] ({{circa|7th–3rd centuries BCE}}) pronunciations, reconstructions for {{zhi|c=道}} and {{zhi|c=導}} are {{Transliteration|och|*d'ôg}} (Karlgren), {{Transliteration|och|*dəw}} (Zhou), {{Transliteration|och|*dəgwx}} and {{Transliteration|och|*dəgwh}},{{sfnp|Li|1971|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}} {{Transliteration|och|*luʔ}},{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=753}} and {{Transliteration|och|*lûʔ}} and {{Transliteration|och|*lûh}}.{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}}

===Semantics===
The word {{zhi|c=道}} has many meanings. For example, the ''[[Hanyu Da Zidian]]'' dictionary defines 39 meanings for {{zhi|c=道|p=dào}} and 6 for {{zhi|c=道|p=dǎo}}.{{sfnp|''Hanyu Da Zidian''|1989|pp=3864–3866}}

[[John DeFrancis]]'s Chinese-English dictionary gives twelve meanings for {{zhi|c=道|p=dào}}, three for {{zhi|c=道|p=dǎo}}, and one for {{zhi|c=道|p=dāo}}. Note that brackets clarify abbreviations and ellipsis marks omitted usage examples.
<blockquote>'''<sup>2</sup>dào''' {{zhi|c=道}} N. &#91;[[noun]]&#93; road; path ◆M. &#91;nominal [[measure word]]&#93; ① (for rivers/topics/etc.) ② (for a course (of food); a streak (of light); etc.) ◆V. &#91;[[verb]]&#93; ① say; speak; talk (introducing direct quote, novel style) ... ② think; suppose ◆B.F. &#91;bound form, [[bound morpheme]]&#93; ① channel ② way; reason; principle ③ doctrine ④ Daoism ⑤ line ⑥〈hist.〉 &#91;history&#93; ⑦ district; circuit canal; passage; tube ⑧ say (polite words) ... See also ''<sup>4</sup>dǎo'', ''<sup>4</sup>dāo''

'''<sup>4</sup>dǎo''' {{lang|zh|导/道[導/-}} B.F. &#91;bound form] ① guide; lead ... ② transmit; conduct ... ③ instruct; direct ...<br />
'''<sup>4</sup>dāo''' {{lang|zh|道}} in ''shénshendāodāo'' ... {{lang|zh|神神道道}} R.F. &#91;[[Reduplication|reduplicated]] form&#93; 〈topo.〉&#91;non-Mandarin form&#93; odd; fantastic; bizarre{{Sfnp|DeFrancis|2003|pp=172, 829}}</blockquote>''Dao'', starting from the [[Song dynasty]], also referred to an ideal in [[Chinese landscape painting]]s that artists sought to live up to by portraying "nature scenes" that reflected "the harmony of man with his surroundings."{{sfnp|Meyer|1994|p=96}}

===Etymology===
The etymological linguistic origins of ''dao'' "way; path" depend upon its Old Chinese pronunciation, which scholars have tentatively reconstructed as *''d'ôg'', *''dəgwx'', *''dəw'', *''luʔ'', and *''lûʔ''.

Boodberg noted that the ''shou'' {{lang|zh|首}} "head" phonetic in the ''dao'' {{lang|zh|道}} character was not merely phonetic but "etymonic", analogous with English ''to head'' meaning "to lead" and "to tend in a certain direction," "ahead," "headway".
<blockquote>Paronomastically, ''tao'' is equated with its homonym {{linktext|lang=zh|蹈}} ''tao'' < ''d'ôg'', "to trample," "tread," and from that point of view it is nothing more than a "treadway," "headtread," or "foretread "; it is also occasionally associated with a near synonym (and possible cognate) {{linktext|lang=zh|迪}} ''ti'' < ''d'iôk'', "follow a road," "go along," "lead," "direct"; "pursue the right path"; a term with definite ethical overtones and a graph with an exceedingly interesting phonetic, {{linktext|lang=zh|由}} ''yu'' < ''djôg''," "to proceed from." The reappearance of C162 &#91;{{lang|zh|辶}}&#93; "walk" in ''ti'' with the support of C157 &#91;{{lang|zh|⻊}}&#93; "foot" in ''tao'', "to trample," "tread," should perhaps serve us as a warning not to overemphasize the headworking functions implied in ''tao'' in preference to those of the lower extremities.{{sfnp|Boodberg|1957|p=602}}</blockquote>

[[Victor H. Mair]] proposes a connection with [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''drogh'', supported by numerous [[cognates]] in [[Indo-European languages]], as well as semantically similar [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words.
<blockquote>The archaic pronunciation of Tao sounded approximately like ''drog'' or ''dorg''. This links it to the Proto-Indo-European root ''drogh'' (to run along) and Indo-European ''dhorg'' (way, movement). Related words in a few modern Indo-European languages are Russian ''doroga'' (way, road), Polish ''droga'' (way, road), Czech ''dráha'' (way, track), Serbo-Croatian ''draga'' (path through a valley), and Norwegian dialect ''drog'' (trail of animals; valley). .... The nearest Sanskrit (Old Indian) cognates to Tao (''drog'') are ''dhrajas'' (course, motion) and ''dhraj'' (course). The most closely related English words are "track" and "trek", while "trail" and "tract" are derived from other cognate Indo-European roots. Following the Way, then, is like going on a cosmic trek. Even more unexpected than the panoply of Indo-European cognates for Tao (''drog'') is the Hebrew root ''d-r-g'' for the same word and Arabic ''t-r-q'', which yields words meaning "track, path, way, way of doing things" and is important in Islamic philosophical discourse.{{sfnp|Mair|1990|p=132}}</blockquote>

Axel Schuessler's etymological dictionary presents two possibilities for the tonal [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of ''dào'' {{lang|zh|道}} "road; way; method" < Middle Chinese ''dâu''<sup>B</sup> < Old Chinese *''lûʔ'' and ''dào'' {{lang|zh|道}} or {{lang|zh|導}} "to go along; bring along; conduct; explain; talk about" < Middle ''dâu''<sup>C</sup> < Old *''lûh''.{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|p=207}} Either ''dào'' {{lang|zh|道}} "the thing which is doing the conducting" is a Tone B (''shangsheng'' {{lang|zh|上聲}} "rising tone") "endoactive noun" derivation from ''dào'' {{lang|zh|導}} "conduct", or ''dào'' {{lang|zh|導}} is a Later Old Chinese ([[Warring States period]]) "general tone C" (''qusheng'' {{lang|zh|去聲}} "departing tone") derivation from ''dào'' {{lang|zh|道}} "way".{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|pp=48–41}} For a possible etymological connection, Schuessler notes the ancient ''[[Fangyan (book)|Fangyan]]'' dictionary defines ''yu'' < *''lokh'' {{lang|zh|裕}} and ''lu'' < *''lu'' {{lang|zh|猷}} as Eastern [[Qi (Shandong)|Qi State]] dialectal words meaning ''dào'' < *''lûʔ'' {{lang|zh|道}} "road".

===Other languages===
Many languages have borrowed and adapted "Tao" as a [[loanword]].

In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], this character {{lang|zh|道}} is pronounced as [[Cantonese]] ''dou6'' and Hokkian ''to7''. In [[Sino-Xenic]] languages, {{lang|zh|道}} is pronounced as [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''dō'', ''tō'', or ''michi''; [[Korean language|Korean]] ''do'' or ''to''; and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] ''đạo''.

Since 1982, when the [[International Organization for Standardization]] adopted [[Pinyin]] as the standard [[romanization of Chinese]], many Western languages have changed from spelling this loanword ''tao'' in national systems (e.g., French [[EFEO Chinese transcription]] and English [[Wade–Giles]]) to ''dao'' in Pinyin.

The ''tao''/''dao'' "the way" [[List of English words of Chinese origin|English word of Chinese origin]] has three meanings, according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.
<blockquote>'''1. a.''' In Taoism, an absolute entity which is the source of the universe; the way in which this absolute entity functions.<br />
'''1. b.''' = ''Taoism'', ''taoist''<br />
'''2.''' In Confucianism and in extended uses, the way to be followed, the right conduct; doctrine or method.</blockquote>
The earliest recorded usages were ''Tao'' (1736), ''Tau'' (1747), ''Taou'' (1831), and ''Dao'' (1971).

The term "[[Taoist priest]]" ({{zhi|c=道士|p=Dàoshì}}), was used already by the Jesuits [[Matteo Ricci]] and [[Nicolas Trigault]] in their ''[[De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas]]'', rendered as ''Tausu'' in the original Latin edition (1615),{{NoteTag|text=''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iLsWAAAAQAAJ De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas suscepta ab Societate Jesu]'', Book One, Chapter 10, p. 125. Quote: "sectarii quidam ''Tausu'' vocant". Chinese gloss in [[Pasquale M. d' Elia]], Matteo Ricci. ''Fonti ricciane: documenti originali concernenti Matteo Ricci e la storia delle prime relazioni tra l'Europa e la Cina (1579-1615)'', Libreria dello Stato, 1942; can be found [https://books.google.com/books?id=zRw8AAAAMAAJ&q=tausu by searching for "tausu"]. [[Louis J. Gallagher]] (''China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matteo Ricci''; 1953), apparently has a typo (''Taufu'' instead of ''Tausu'') in the ''text'' of his translation of this line (p. 102), and ''Tausi'' in the index (p. 615)}} and ''Tausa'' in an early English translation published by [[Samuel Purchas]] (1625).{{NoteTag|text=''A discourse of the Kingdome of China, taken out of Ricius and Trigautius, containing the countrey, people, government, religion, rites, sects, characters, studies, arts, acts ; and a Map of China added, drawne out of one there made with Annotations for the understanding thereof'' (excerpts from ''[[De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas]]'', in English translation) in ''[[Samuel Purchas|Purchas his Pilgrimes]]'', Volume XII, p. 461 (1625).  Quote: "... Lauzu ... left no Bookes of his Opinion, nor seemes to have intended any new Sect, but certaine Sectaries, called Tausa, made him the head of their sect after his death..." Can be found in the [https://archive.org/stream/hakluytusposthu14purcgoog/hakluytusposthu14purcgoog_djvu.txt full text of "Hakluytus posthumus"] on archive.org.}}