Editing Sudan (section)

=== Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956) ===
{{Main|Anglo-Egyptian Sudan}}
[[File:The war in the Soudan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Mahdist War]] was fought between a group of Muslim dervishes called [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdists]], who had overrun much of Sudan, and the British forces.]]

In 1899, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement under which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Humphries |first1=Christian |title=Oxford World Encyclopedia |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=0195218183 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo/page/644 644] |url=https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo/page/644 }}</ref> In reality, Sudan was effectively administered as a [[Crown colony]]. The British were keen to reverse the process, started under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], of uniting the [[Nile Valley]] under Egyptian leadership and sought to frustrate all efforts aimed at further uniting the two countries.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

Under the Delimitation, Sudan's border with Abyssinia was contested by raiding tribesmen trading slaves, breaching boundaries of the law. In 1905 local chieftain Sultan Yambio, reluctant to the end, gave up the struggle with British forces that had occupied the [[Kordofan]] region, finally ending the lawlessness. Ordinances published by Britain enacted a system of taxation. This was following the precedent set by the Khalifa. The main taxes were recognized. These taxes were on land, herds, and date-palms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holt |title=A Modern History of the Sudan |publisher=Groves Press Inc |location=New York}}</ref> The continued British administration of Sudan fuelled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With a formal end to Ottoman rule in 1914, Sir [[Reginald Wingate]] was sent that December to occupy Sudan as the new Military Governor. [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt|Hussein Kamel]] was declared [[Sultan of Egypt and Sudan]], as was his brother and successor, [[Fuad I of Egypt|Fuad I]]. They continued upon their insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state even when the [[Sultanate of Egypt]] was retitled as the [[Kingdom of Egypt|Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan]], but it was [[Saad Zaghloul]] who continued to be frustrated in the ambitions until his death in 1927.{{sfn|Daly|p=346}}
[[File:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan camel soldier of the British army.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|A camel soldier of the native forces of the British army, early 20th century]]

From 1924 until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate territories; the north and south. The [[Lee Stack|assassination of a Governor-General of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in Cairo]] was the causative factor; it brought demands of the newly elected [[Wafd Party|Wafd]] government from colonial forces. A permanent establishment of two battalions in Khartoum was renamed the [[Sudan Defence Force]] acting as under the government, replacing the former garrison of Egyptian army soldiers, saw action afterward during the [[Abyssinia Crisis|Walwal Incident]].{{sfn|Morewood|2005|p=4}} The [[Wafdist]] parliamentary majority had rejected [[Abdel Khalek Sarwat Pasha|Sarwat Pasha]]'s accommodation plan with [[Austen Chamberlain]] in London; yet Cairo still needed the money. The Sudanese Government's revenue had reached a peak in 1928 at £6.6&nbsp;million, thereafter the Wafdist disruptions, and Italian borders incursions from Somaliland, London decided to reduce expenditure during the Great Depression. Cotton and gum exports were dwarfed by the necessity to import almost everything from Britain leading to a balance of payments deficit at Khartoum.{{sfn|Daly|pp=457–459}}

In July 1936 the Liberal Constitutional leader, Muhammed Mahmoud was persuaded to bring Wafd delegates to London to sign the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, "the beginning of a new stage in Anglo-Egyptian relations", wrote [[Anthony Eden]].{{sfn|Morewood|1940|pp=94–95}} The British Army was allowed to return to Sudan to protect the Canal Zone. They were able to find training facilities, and the RAF was free to fly over Egyptian territory. It did not, however, resolve the problem of Sudan: the Sudanese Intelligentsia agitated for a return to metropolitan rule, conspiring with Germany's agents.<ref>[[Arthur Henderson]], 8 May 1936 quoted in {{harvnb|Daly|p=348}}</ref>
[[File:Egypt sudan under british control.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map of [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]], 1912]]
Italian fascist leader [[Benito Mussolini]] made it clear that he could not invade Abyssinia without first conquering Egypt and Sudan; they intended unification of [[Italian Libya]] with [[Italian East Africa]]. The British Imperial General Staff prepared for military defence of the region, which was thin on the ground.<ref>Sir Miles Lampson, 29 September 1938; {{harvnb|Morewood|p=117}}</ref> The British ambassador blocked Italian attempts to secure a Non-Aggression Treaty with Egypt-Sudan. But Mahmoud was a supporter of the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]; the region was caught between the Empire's efforts to save the Jews, and moderate Arab calls to halt migration.{{sfn|Morewood|pp=164–165}}

The Sudanese Government was directly involved militarily in the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]]. Formed in 1925, the [[Sudan Defence Force]] played an active part in responding to incursions early in World War Two. Italian troops occupied [[Kassala]] and other border areas from [[Italian East Africa|Italian Somaliland]] during 1940. In 1942, the SDF also played a part in the invasion of the Italian colony by British and Commonwealth forces. The last British [[governor-general]] was [[Robert George Howe]].

The [[Egyptian revolution of 1952]] finally heralded the beginning of the march towards Sudanese independence. Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders, [[Mohammed Naguib]], whose mother was Sudanese, and later [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], believed the only way to end British domination in Sudan was for Egypt to officially abandon its claims of sovereignty. In addition, Nasser knew it would be difficult for Egypt to govern an impoverished Sudan after its independence. The British on the other hand continued their political and financial support for the Mahdist successor, [[Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi]], who it was believed would resist Egyptian pressure for Sudanese independence. Abd al-Rahman was capable of this, but his regime was plagued by political ineptitude, which garnered a colossal loss of support in northern and central Sudan. Both Egypt and Britain sensed a great instability fomenting, and thus opted to allow both Sudanese regions, north and south to have a free vote on whether they wished independence or a British withdrawal.