Editing Soybean (section)

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Soy beans.jpg|thumb|Soybean crops in [[Minnesota]]]]
[[File:AreialSeedingPlane.jpg|thumb|United States|alt=[[Biplane]], US field, [[cropduster|cropdusting]]]]
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}

Soybeans are globally important agricultural crops, grown as a major source of protein and [[Soybean oil|oil]]. It prefers fertile, well-drained soils and requires a warm temperate climate with adequate rainfall or irrigation. Soybeans are mainly grown in the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.

It is usually planted in straight rows using modern machinery, and pests and weeds must be controlled to maintain the crop. After maturity, it is harvested using mechanized harvesting machines. Soybeans are used in the production of many food and industrial products, such as [[Tofu]], oils, and feed, in addition to their role in improving soil fertility by [[Nitrogen fixation|fixing nitrogen]].

===Conditions===
[[File:Sembrado de soja en argentina.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|[[Argentina]]|alt=Fields in [[Argentina]]]]

Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of {{convert|20|to|30|C|F|round=5}}; temperatures of below {{convert|20|C|F|round=5}} and over {{convert|40|C|F|round=5}} stunt growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist [[Alluvium|alluvial soil]]s with good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform [[nitrogen fixation]] by establishing a [[symbiotic]] relationship with the bacterium ''[[Bradyrhizobium japonicum]]'' ([[synonym (taxonomy)|syn.]] ''Rhizobium japonicum''; Jordan 1982). This ability to fix nitrogen allows farmers to reduce nitrogen [[fertilizer]] use and increase yields when growing other crops in [[Crop rotation|rotation]] with soy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Corn and Soybean Rotation Effect - Wisconsin Corn Agronomy |url=http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/AA/A014.aspx |website=corn.agronomy.wisc.edu |access-date=2020-05-17 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807071753/http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/AA/A014.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> There may be some trade-offs, however, in the long-term abundance of [[Soil organic matter|organic material in soils]] where soy and other crops (for example, [[Maize|corn]]) are grown in rotation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corn and soybean rotation could pose long-term tradeoffs for soil health |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-10-corn-soybean-rotation-pose-long-term.html |website=phys.org |language=en |access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref> For best results, though, an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop [[cultivar]]s generally reach a height of around {{convert|1|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, and take 80–120&nbsp;days from sowing to harvesting.

===Soils===
Soil scientists [[Edson Lobato]] (Brazil), [[Andrew McClung]] (U.S.), and [[Alysson Paolinelli]] (Brazil) were awarded the 2006 [[World Food Prize]] for transforming the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the [[Cerrado]] region of Brazil into highly productive cropland that could grow profitable soybeans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/20002009_laureates/2006_lobato_mcclung_paolinelli/|title=2006: Lobato, McClung, Paolinelli - The World Food Prize - Improving the Quality, Quantity and Availability of Food in the World|first=Global Reach Internet Productions, LLC-Ames, IA-|last=globalreach.com|website=www.worldfoodprize.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first = Susan|last = Lang|title = Cornell Alumnus Andrew Colin McClung Reaps 2006 World Food Prize|url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/June06/World.Food.prize.ssl.html|work =Chronicle Online |publisher = Cornell University|date = June 21, 2006|access-date =February 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://e360.yale.edu/feature/the_cerrado_brazils_other_biodiversity_hotspot_loses_ground/2393/ |title=The Cerrado: Brazil's Other Biodiverse Region Loses Ground|date=April 14, 2011|last=Pearce|first=Fred|publisher=Yale University|access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1023/A:1024191913296|title = The success of BNF in soybean in Brazil| journal=[[Plant and Soil]]| volume=252| pages=1–9|year = 2003|last1 = Alves|first1 = Bruno J.R.| last2=Boddey| first2=Robert M.| last3=Urquiaga| first3=Segundo| issue=1 | bibcode=2003PlSoi.252....1A |s2cid = 10143668}}</ref>
[[File:Soybean rust.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|[[Soybean rust]]]]

===Contamination concerns===
Human [[sewage sludge]] can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans. Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Molybdenum Uptake by Forage Crops Grown on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soils in the Field and Greenhouse|url=http://soilandwater.bee.cornell.edu/publications/McBrideJEQ00.pdf|journal=[[Journal of Environmental Quality]]|date=May–June 2000|volume=29|issue=3|last1=McBride|first1=M.B.|last2=Richards|first2=B.K.|last3=Steenhuis|first3=T.|last4=Spiers|first4=G.|pages=848–54|doi=10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900030021x|bibcode=2000JEnvQ..29..848M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Residual Effects of Sewage Sludge on Soybean: II. Accumulation of Soil and Symbiotically Fixed Nitrogen|journal=[[Journal of Environmental Quality]]|date=December 9, 1985|volume=16|issue=2|last1=Heckman|first1=J.R.|last2=Angle|first2=J.S.|last3=Chaney|first3=R.L.|pages=118–24|doi=10.2134/jeq1987.00472425001600020005x}}</ref>

===Pests===
{{Further|List of soybean diseases}}
Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of [[bacterial crop disease|bacterial diseases]], [[fungal crop disease|fungal diseases]], [[viral crop disease|viral diseases]], and parasites.

The primary bacterial diseases include [[bacterial blight]], [[bacterial pustule]] and [[downy mildew]] affecting the soybean plant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gardenandme.com/soybean/|title=Soybean plant - How to grow, care, pest control and uses of soybeans|date=June 5, 2020|website=Garden And Me}}</ref>

The [[Japanese beetle]] ('''''Popillia japonica''''') poses a significant threat to agricultural crops, including soybeans, due to its voracious feeding habits. Found commonly in both urban and suburban areas, these beetles are frequently observed in agricultural landscapes where they can cause considerable damage to crops like corn, soybeans, and various fruits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Japanese beetle - Popillia japonica |url=https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/beetles/japanese_beetle.htm |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=entnemdept.ufl.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EENY350/IN630: Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica Newman (Insecta: Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) |url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN630 |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=Ask IFAS - Powered by EDIS |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Soybean cyst nematode]] (SCN) is the worst pest of soybean in the US. Losses of 30%<ref name="Missouri" /> or 40%<ref group="RM" name="Tylka-40-sympt">"You can literally have 40% yield loss with no symptoms," says Greg Tylka, [[Iowa State University Extension|Iowa State University (ISU) Extension]] nematologist.</ref> are common even without symptoms.

The [[Helicoverpa zea|corn earworm moth and bollworm]] (Helicoverpa zea) is a common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia.<ref>Herbert, Ames, Cathy Hull, and Eric Day. "Corn Earworm Biology and Management in Soybeans." [[Virginia Cooperative Extension]], [[Virginia State University]] (2009).</ref>

Soybeans are consumed by [[whitetail deer]] which may damage soybean plants through feeding, trampling and bedding, reducing [[crop yield]]s by as much as 15%.<ref name="ag">{{cite web|url=https://www.morningagclips.com/controlling-white-tailed-deer-in-soybeans|title=Controlling white-tailed deer in soybeans|date=16 January 2018|publisher=Morning AgClips – Michigan|access-date=9 May 2019}}</ref> [[Groundhog]]s are also a common pest in soybean fields, living in burrows underground and feeding nearby. One den of groundhogs can consume a tenth to a quarter of an acre of soybeans.<ref name="brant">{{cite web|url=https://www.lancasterfarming.com/news/columnists/soybean-farmers-warranted-in-waging-war-on-groundhogs/article_f6e6a210-2995-521f-8655-aa19efe373c3.html|title=Soybean Farmers Warranted in Waging War on Groundhogs|date=9 September 2016|publisher=[[Lancaster Farming]]|author=Brant, Jesse D|access-date=9 May 2019}}</ref> [[animal repellent|Chemical repellents]] or [[firearm]]s are effective for controlling pests in soybean fields.<ref name=ag/><ref name=brant/>

{{anchor|Fungi|Fungus|Funguses}}
Soybeans suffer from the fungus ''[[Pythium spinosum]]'' in [[Arkansas]] and [[Indiana]] (United States), and China.<ref name="P-spinosum-US-Nat-Fung-Coll">{{cite web
    | title=U.S. National Fungus Collections Database results
    | website=Fungal Databases, [[U.S. National Fungus Collections]]
    | date=2020-12-08
    | url=http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/new_allViewGenBank.cfm?thisName=Pythium%20spinosum&organismtype=Fungus
    | access-date=2020-12-08
    }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In Japan and the United States, the [[Soybean dwarf virus]] (SbDV) causes a disease in soybeans and is transmitted by aphids.<ref name="harrison2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Barbara |last2=Steinlage |first2=Todd A. |last3=Domier |first3=Leslie L. |last4=D'Arcy |first4=Cleora J. |date=January 2005 |title=Incidence of Soybean dwarf virus and Identification of Potential Vectors in Illinois |journal=Plant Disease |language=en |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=28–32 |doi=10.1094/PD-89-0028 |doi-access=free |pmid=30795280 |issn=0191-2917 }}</ref>

===Cultivars===
====Disease resistant cultivars====
[[plant disease resistance|Resistant varieties]] are available. In Indian cultivars, Nataraj ''et al.'' 2020 find that anthracnose caused by ''[[Colletotrichum truncatum]]'' is resisted by a combination of 2 major genes.<ref name="identification">{{Cite journal|issue=4|pages=393–409|year=2021|volume=22|last1=Boufleur|first1=Thais R.|last2=Ciampi-Guillardi|first2=Maisa|last3=Tikami|first3=Ísis|last4=Rogério|first4=Flávia|last5=Thon|first5=Michael R.|last6=Sukno|first6=Serenella A.|last7=Massola Júnior|first7=Nelson S.|last8=Baroncelli|first8=Riccardo|journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]]|s2cid=231969160|pmid=33609073|pmc=7938629|doi=10.1111/mpp.13036|title=Soybean anthracnose caused by ''Colletotrichum'' species: Current status and future prospects}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|issue=6|volume=67|year=2020|last1=Nataraj|first1=Vennampally|last2=Maranna|first2=Shivakumar|last3=Kumawat|first3=Giriraj|last4=Gupta|first4=Sanjay|last5=Rajput|first5=Laxman Singh|last6=Kumar|first6=Sanjeev|last7=Sharma|first7=Amar Nath|last8=Bhatia|first8=Virender Singh|journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution|s2cid=211730576|doi=10.1007/s10722-020-00917-4|pages=1449–1456|title=Genetic inheritance and identification of germplasm sources for anthracnose resistance in soybean [''Glycine max'' (L.) Merr.]}}
</ref>

=====PI 88788=====
The vast majority of cultivars in the US have [[soybean cyst nematode resistance]] (SCN resistance), but rely on [[soybean cyst nematode#PI 88788|only one breeding line (PI 88788)]] as their sole source of resistance.<ref group="RM" name="PI-88788">Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance (PI 88788)may be helping SCN to overcome SCN-resistant varieties. Out of 807 resistant varieties listed by ISU this year, just 18 had a genetic background outside of PI 88788. "We have lots of varieties to pick from, but the genetic background is not as diverse as we would like it to be," says Tylka.</ref> (The resistance genes provided by PI 88788, {{Visible anchor|Peking}}, and {{Visible anchor|PI 90763}} were [[genome mapping|characterized]] in 1997.)<ref name="Concibido-et-al-1997">{{cite journal|issue=1|last1=Concibido|first1=Vergel C.|last2=Lange|first2=Douglas A.|last3=Denny|first3=Roxanne L.|last4=Orf|first4=James H.|last5=Young|first5=Nevin D.|title=Genome Mapping of Soybean Cyst Nematode Resistance Genes in 'Peking', PI 90763, and PI 88788 Using DNA Markers|journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=37|year=1997|doi=10.2135/cropsci1997.0011183x003700010046x|pages=258–264}}</ref> As a result, for example, in 2012 only 18 cultivars out of 807 recommended by the [[Iowa State University Extension]] had any ancestry outside of PI 88788. By 2020 the situation was still about the same: Of 849 there were 810 with some ancestry from PI 88788,<ref name="Iowa-other-resist">{{cite web | title=Soybean varieties with SCN resistance other than PI 88788 | website=Integrated Crop Management | publisher=[[Iowa State University#Birth of cooperative extension|Iowa State University Extension]] | url=http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/cropnews/2020/12/soybean-varieties-scn-resistance-other-pi-88788 | access-date=2021-03-12}}</ref><ref name="Iowa-resist">{{cite web | title=SCN-resistant Soybean Varieties for Iowa - By the Numbers | website=Integrated Crop Management | publisher=[[Iowa State University#Birth of cooperative extension|Iowa State University Extension]] | url=http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/cropnews/2020/11/scn-resistant-soybean-varieties-iowa-numbers | access-date=2021-03-12}}</ref> 35 from Peking, and only 2 from PI 89772. (On the question of exclusively PI 88788 ancestry, that number was not available for 2020.)<ref name="Iowa-resist" /> That was speculated to be in 2012<ref group="RM" name="overcome-resis">There have been cases where SCN has clipped yields of SCN-resistant varieties. Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance (PI 88788)may be helping SCN to overcome SCN-resistant varieties.</ref>—and was clearly by 2020<ref name="Iowa-other-resist" />—producing SCN populations that are virulent on PI 88788.

=== Production ===
{{main|List of countries by soybean production}}
{| class="wikitable"  style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2|Soybean production – 2020
|-
!  style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
!  style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| <small>Production (millions of [[tonne]]s)</small>
|-
| {{BRA}} ||122
|-
| {{USA}} ||113
|-
| {{ARG}} ||49
|-
| {{CHN}} ||20
|-
| {{IND}} ||11
|-
| {{PAR}} ||11
|-
| '''World'''||'''353'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | <small>Source: [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database|FAOSTAT]]<ref name="faostat19">{{cite web|publisher=United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division, FAOSTAT|title=Soybean production in 2019, Crops/World regions/Production quantity (from pick lists)|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/|access-date=8 February 2021|date=2019}}</ref></small>
|}
[[File:PRODUCTION OF SOYBEANS (2018).svg|thumb|<ref name="FAO-2020-production-map" />|alt=Production of soybeans (2018)<ref name="FAO-2020-production-map">{{Cite book|title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2020|publisher=[[FAO]]|year=2020|isbn=978-92-5-133394-5|location=[[Rome]]|doi=10.4060/cb1329en|s2cid=242794287}}</ref>]]
[[File:Soybean fields in the United States.webp|thumb|Soybean fields in the United States]]
In 2020, world production of soybeans was over 353 million tonnes, led by Brazil and the United States combined with 66% of the total (table). Production has dramatically increased across the globe since the 1960s, but particularly in South America after a cultivar that grew well in low latitudes was developed in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cattelan|first1=Alexandre José|last2=Dall'Agnol|first2=Amélio|date=2018-01-01|title=The rapid soybean growth in Brazil|url=https://www.ocl-journal.org/articles/ocl/abs/2018/01/ocl170039/ocl170039.html|journal=[[OCL (journal)|OCL]]|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=D102|doi=10.1051/ocl/2017058|doi-access=free}}</ref> The rapid growth of the industry has been primarily fueled by large increases in [[Western pattern diet|worldwide demand for meat]] products, particularly in developing countries like China, which alone accounts for more than 60% of imports.<ref>{{Cite web|title=OEC - Soybeans (HS92: 1201) Product Trade, Exporters and Importers|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/1201/|website=oec.world|language=en|access-date=2020-05-17|archive-date=April 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404122328/https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/1201/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Environmental issues ====
{{See also|Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest}}
In spite of the Amazon "Soy Moratorium", soy production continues to play a significant role in [[deforestation]] when its indirect impacts are taken into account, as land used to grow soy continues to increase. This land either comes from [[pasture]] land (which increasingly supplants forested areas), or areas outside the Amazon not covered by the moratorium, such as the [[Cerrado]] region. Roughly one-fifth of deforestation can be attributed to expanding land use to produce oilseeds, primarily for soy and [[palm oil]], whereas the expansion of [[beef]] production accounts for 41%. The main driver of deforestation is the global demand for meat, which in turn requires huge tracts of land to grow feed crops for livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation |title=Drivers of Deforestation |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |date= February 9, 2021|journal=[[Our World in Data]] |access-date=March 20, 2021 }}</ref> Around 80% of the global soybean crop is used to feed livestock.<ref>{{cite news |last= Liotta|first= Edoardo|date=August 23, 2019 |title=Feeling Sad About the Amazon Fires? Stop Eating Meat|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/feeling-sad-about-the-amazon-fires-stop-eating-meat/ |work=[[Vice Media|Vice]] |access-date=August 25, 2019|quote=Soy is the most important protein in animal feed, with 80 percent of the world's soybean crop fed to livestock.}}</ref>