Editing Socialist realism (section)

== Notable works and artists ==
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2023}}

[[File:«Во́ин-освободи́тель» — монумент в берлинском Трептов-парке 4 - Kopie.jpg|thumb|"Soldier-Liberator" by [[Yevgeny Vuchetich]]. [[Soviet War Memorial (Treptower Park)|Treptower Park Memorial]], [[Berlin]] (1948–1949)|left]]

=== Music ===
[[File:Brodski lenin.jpg|thumb|[[Isaak Brodsky]], ''Lenin in [[Smolny Institute|Smolny]]'' (1930), living up to the title of "realism" more than most works of the style]]

[[Hanns Eisler]] composed many workers' songs, marches, and ballads on current political topics such as ''Song of Solidarity'', ''Song of the United Front'', and ''Song of the Comintern''. He was a founder of a new style of revolutionary song for the masses. He also composed works in larger forms such as ''Requiem for Lenin''. Eisler's most important works include the cantatas ''German Symphony'', ''Serenade of the Age'' and ''Song of Peace''. Eisler combines features of revolutionary songs with varied expression. His symphonic music is known for its complex and subtle orchestration.{{Citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Closely associated with the rise of the [[labor movement]] was the development of the [[revolutionary song]], which was performed at demonstrations and meetings. Among the most famous of the revolutionary songs are ''[[The Internationale]]'' and ''[[Whirlwinds of Danger]]''. Notable songs from Russia include ''Boldly, Comrades, in Step'', ''Workers' Marseillaise'', and ''Rage, Tyrants''. Folk and revolutionary songs influenced the Soviet [[mass song]]s. The mass song was a leading genre in Soviet music, especially during the 1930s and the war. The mass song influenced other genres, including the art song, opera, and film music. The most popular mass songs include [[Isaak Dunayevsky|Dunaevsky]]'s ''Song of the Homeland'', [[Mikhail Isakovsky|Isaakovsky]]'s ''[[Katyusha (song)|Katiusha]]'', Novikov's ''Hymn of Democratic Youth of the World'', and [[Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov|Aleksandrov's]] ''[[Svyaschennaya Voyna|Sacred War]]''.

=== Film ===
Discussions of film as a tool of the Soviet state began in the early twentieth century. [[Leon Trotsky]] argued that cinema is a valuable means for propaganda and education and that it could be used to supplant the influence of the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church in Russia]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Lev Trotsky: Vodka, the Church and the Cinema |date=2012-10-12 |work=The Film Factory |pages=116–118 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203059920-29 |access-date=2024-09-20 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203059920-29 |isbn=978-0-203-05992-0}}</ref>

In the early 1930s, [[Soviet cinema|Soviet filmmakers]] applied socialist realism in their work. Notable films include ''[[Chapaev (film)|Chapaev]]'', which shows the role of the people in the history-making process. The theme of revolutionary history was developed in films such as ''[[The Youth of Maxim]]'' by [[Grigori Kozintsev]] and [[Leonid Trauberg]], ''[[Shchors (film)|Shchors]]'' by Dovzhenko, and ''We are from Kronstadt'' by E. Dzigan. The shaping of the new man under socialism was a theme of films such as ''A Start Life'' by N. Ekk, ''Ivan'' by Dovzhenko, ''Valerii Chkalov'' by M. Kalatozov and the film version of ''Tanker "Derbent"'' (1941). Some films depicted the part of peoples of the Soviet Union against foreign invaders: ''[[Alexander Nevsky (film)|Alexander Nevsky]]'' by [[Sergei Eisenstein|Eisenstein]], ''Minin and Pozharsky'' by [[Pudovkin]], and ''Bogdan Khmelnitsky'' by Savchenko. Soviet politicians were the subjects in films such as [[Sergei Yutkevich|Yutkevich]]'s trilogy of movies about Lenin.

Socialist realism was also applied to [[Bollywood|Hindi films]] of the 1940s and 1950s.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} These include [[Chetan Anand (producer & director)|Chetan Anand]]'s ''[[Neecha Nagar]]'' (1946), which won the [[Palme d'Or|Grand Prize]] at the [[1946 Cannes Film Festival|1st Cannes Film Festival]], and [[Bimal Roy]]'s ''[[Two Acres of Land]]'' (1953), which won the International Prize at the [[1954 Cannes Film Festival|7th Cannes Film Festival]].

=== Paintings ===
The painter [[Aleksandr Deineka]] provides a notable example for his expressionist and patriotic scenes of the Second World War, collective farms, and sports. Yuriy Ivanovich Pimenov, [[Boris Ioganson]] and [[Geli Korzev]] have also been described as "unappreciated masters of twentieth-century realism".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bartelik|first=Marek|year=1999|title=Concerning Socialist Realism: Recent Publications on Russian Art (book review)|journal=Art Journal|volume=58|issue=4|pages=90–95|doi=10.2307/777916|jstor=777916}}</ref> Another well-known practitioner was [[Fyodor Pavlovich Reshetnikov]].

Socialist realist art found acceptance in the [[Baltic region|Baltic]] nations, inspiring many artists. One such artist was [[Czeslaw Znamierowski]] (23 May 1890 – 9 August 1977), a [[Soviet]] [[Lithuania]]n painter, known for his large panoramic landscapes and love of nature. Znamierowski combined these two passions to create very notable paintings in the Soviet Union, earning the prestigious title of [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic|Honorable Artist of LSSR]] in 1965.<ref>Alekna, Romas (24 May 1975). "Česlovui Znamierovskiui – 85" [Česlovas Znamierovskis Celebrates his 85th Birthday]. Literatūra ir menas [Literature and Art] (in Lithuanian) (Vilnius: Lithuanian Creative Unions Weekly)</ref> Born in [[Latvia]], which formed part of the [[Russian Empire]] at the time, Znamierowski was of [[Poland|Polish]] descent and Lithuanian citizenship, a country where he lived for most of his life and died. He excelled in landscapes and social realism, and held many exhibitions. Znamierowski was also widely published in national newspapers, magazines and books.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.czeslawznamierowski.com/research|title=Czeslaw Znamierowski|publisher=CzeslawZnamierowski|date=27 October 2013}}</ref> His more notable paintings include ''Before Rain'' (1930), ''Panorama of Vilnius City'' (1950), ''The Green Lake'' (1955), and ''In Klaipeda Fishing Port'' (1959). A large collection of his art is located in the [[Lithuanian Art Museum]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ldm.lt/dailininkai/Tapyba_19401990_Z.htm |title=Lietuvos dailės muziejus. "Lietuvos tapyba 1940–1990" LDM rinkiniuose saugomų kūrinių katalogas (Elektroninė versija). Z_Ž |access-date=2013-11-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316192211/http://www.ldm.lt/Dailininkai/Tapyba_19401990_Z.htm |archive-date=2015-03-16 }}</ref>

=== Literature ===
[[Martin Andersen Nexø]] developed socialist realism in his own way. His creative method featured a combination of publicistic passion, a critical view of capitalist society, and a steadfast striving to bring reality into accord with socialist ideals. The novel ''Pelle, the Conqueror'' is considered to be a classic of socialist realism.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} The novel ''Ditte, Daughter of Man'' had a working-class woman as its heroine. He battled against the enemies of socialism in the books ''Two Worlds'', and ''Hands Off!''.

[[Bruno Apitz]]'s novel ''[[Naked Among Wolves (novel)|Nackt unter Wölfen]]'', a story that culminates in the vivid description of the self-liberation of the detainees,<ref>{{Cite web |last=mdr.de |title=Bruno Apitz und sein Roman 'Nackt unter Wölfen' {{!}} MDR.DE |url=https://www.mdr.de/zeitreise/bruno-apitz-nackt-unter-woelfen100.html |access-date=2021-01-09 |website=www.mdr.de |language=de}}</ref> was deliberately chosen to take place on the same day as the formal opening of the Buchenwald Monument in September 1958.<ref name=":9" />

The novels of [[Louis Aragon]], such as ''The Real World'', depict the working class as a rising force of the nation. He published two books of documentary prose, ''The Communist Man''. In the collection of poems ''A Knife in the Heart Again'', Aragon criticizes the penetration of [[American imperialism]] into Europe. The novel ''The Holy Week'' depicts the artist's path toward the people against a broad social and historical background.{{Citation needed|date=May 2016}}

[[Maxim Gorky]]'s novel ''[[Mother (Gorky novel)|Mother]]'' (1906) is usually considered to have been the first socialist-realist novel.<ref>[[Andrei Sinyavsky]]. Maxim Gorky's ''Mother'' as the first Socrealist novel</ref> Gorky was also a major factor in the school's rapid rise, and his pamphlet, ''On Socialist Realism'', essentially lays out the needs of Soviet art. Other important works of literature include [[Fyodor Gladkov]]'s ''[[Cement (novel)|Cement]]'' (1925), [[Nikolai Ostrovsky]]'s ''[[How the Steel Was Tempered]]'' (1936) and [[Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy|Aleksey Tolstoy]]'s epic trilogy ''[[The Road to Calvary]]'' (1922–1941). [[Yury Krymov]]'s novel ''Tanker "Derbent"'' (1938) portrays Soviet merchant seafarers being transformed by the [[Stakhanovite movement]].

''Thol'', a novel by [[Daniel Selvaraj|D. Selvaraj]] in Tamil is a standing example of Marxist Realism in India. It won a literary award ([[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Tamil|Sahithya Akademi]]) for the year 2012.<ref>{{cite web |title=Akademi Awards (1955-2020) |url=http://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/awards/akademi%20samman_suchi.jsp |website=Sahitya Akademi: National Academy of Letters |access-date=June 25, 2021}}</ref>

=== Sculptures ===
Sculptor [[Fritz Cremer]] created a series of monuments commemorating the victims of the [[Nazism|Nazi]] regime in the former concentration camps [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], [[Buchenwald concentration camp|Buchenwald]], [[Mauthausen concentration camp|Mauthausen]] and [[Ravensbrück concentration camp|Ravensbrück]]. His bronze monument in Buchenwald, depicting the liberation of this concentration camp by detainees in April 1945, is considered one of the most striking examples of socialist realism in GDR sculpture for its representation of communist liberation.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Each figure in the monument, erected outside the campsite, has symbolic significance according to the orthodox communist interpretation of the event. Thus communists were portrayed as the driving force behind self-liberation, symbolized by a figure in the foreground sacrificing himself for his sufferers, followed by the central group of determined comrades through whose courage and fearlessness is encouraged. The German Democratic Republic used these sculptures to reaffirm its claim to the historical and political legacy of the anti-fascist struggle for freedom.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Rob|first=Burns|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31934309|title=German cultural studies : an introduction|date=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Burns, Rob |isbn=0-19-871502-1|location=New York|page=173|oclc=31934309}}</ref>[[File:Stamp of Moldova md048st.jpg|thumb|Cobizev featured on a stamp of Moldova]]
[[Claudia Cobizev]] was a Moldovan sculptor, whose work was known for its sensitive portrayals of women and children.<ref name=":32">Marian, Ana. [https://ibn.idsi.md/sites/default/files/imag_file/150_156_Particularitatile%20portretului%20in%20creatia%20Claudiei%20Cobizev.pdf "Particularităţile portretului în creaţia Claudiei Cobizev."] ''Arta'' 1 (AV) (2015): 150–156.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-05 |title=Claudia Cobizev a făcut din schiţe adevărate opere de artă |url=https://trm.md/ro/cultura/claudia-cobizev-sculptorita-care-a-facut-din-schite-adevarate-opere-de-arta |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=TRM |language=ro}}</ref> Her most notable work is ''Cap de moldoveancă'' which was exhibited at the Paris International Exhibition to wide acclaim.<ref name=":22">Malcoci, Vitalie. [https://ibn.idsi.md/sites/default/files/imag_file/175-176_13.pdf "115 ani de la nașterea celebrei sculptoriţe Claudia Cobizev."] ''Arta'' 1 (AV) (2020): 175–176.</ref>

=== Theater ===
Theater is a realm in which socialist realism as a movement took root as a way to reach out and appeal to the masses. This occurred both within the [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet bloc]] as well as outside of it, with [[China]] being another hotbed for socialist realism within theater.

==== Soviet Union ====
[[File:Platon_Keržencev.jpg|left|thumb|Photo of [[Platon Kerzhentsev]]]]
Countries within the [[Soviet Union]] were heavily influenced by socialist realism when it came to theater. Early after the [[Russian Revolution|1917 revolution]], a movement arose to attempt to redefine what theater was, with theorist [[Platon Kerzhentsev]] wanting to break down the barriers between actors and the public, creating unity between the two.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Jesse |title=Soviet Theatre During the Thaw: Aesthetics, Politics, and Performance |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |location=New York |page=23}}</ref> This new way of thinking about what theater should be influenced the beginnings of socialist realism within this space, making it more communal and less hierarchical.

With the revolution, there was the ability to change the existing theatrical institutions to fit the new ideas circulating. The early 1920s saw this explosion of creativity, with organizations such as the TEO [[People's Commissariat for Education|Narkompros]] (the Department of Fine Arts) working to incorporate new types of theater.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gérin |first=Annie |title=Devastation and Laughter: Satire, Power, and Culture in the Early Soviet State (1920s–1930s) |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2018 |pages=83}}</ref> Thus, these movements were later brought under control and solidified by the Soviet government, as individual theatrical troupes were organized and transformed through governmental support.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mally |first=Lynn |date=1993 |title=Autonomous Theater and the Origins of Socialist Realism: The 1932 Olympiad of Autonomous Art |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/131343 |journal=The Russian Review |volume=52 |issue=2 |page=199 |doi=10.2307/131343 |jstor=131343 }}</ref>

A part of these movements involved the reinvention of classic shows, including those in the Western canon. ''[[Hamlet]]'' particularly had a draw for Russians, and was seen to provide insight into the workings and complexities of Russian life after the 1917 revolution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kim |date=2021 |title=Shakespeare, Formalism, and Socialist Realism: The Censured Hamlets of Michael Chekhov and Nikolay Akimov |url=https://www.academia.edu/71648114 |journal=The Shakespearean International Yearbook |volume=18 |page=61 |via=Acedemia.edu}}</ref> Playwrights attempted to express their feelings about life around them while additionally following the guidelines of socialist realism, a way of reinventing old shows. ''Hamlet'' was re-imagined by [[Nikolay Akimov]], for example, as a show that was more materialist in nature, coming at the end of this era of experimentation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Kim |date=2021 |title=Shakespeare, Formalism, and Socialist Realism: The Censured Hamlets of Michael Chekhov and Nikolay Akimov |url=https://www.academia.edu/71648114 |journal=The Shakespearean International Yearbook |volume=18 |page=71 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref>

These movements were not merely localized to Russia, but spread throughout the USSR, with [[Poland]] being a notable location where socialist realism was implemented in theater. In order to make theater more accessible to the average person (for both entertainment and educational purposes), an emphasis was put on creating a network of smaller, independent theaters, including those in rural communities and traveling companies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiśniewska-Grabarczyk |first=Anna |date=2016 |title=Theater and Drama of Socialist Realism in the Context of Cryptotexts |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318395841 |journal=Polish Literary Journal of the University of Lodz |volume=37 |issue=7 |page=76 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

By making theater available to everyone, not simply those with the time and money to view it, officials hoped to educate the public both on theater itself and the various ideologies they wanted to promote. Beliefs that were more heavily promoted included those seen to be educational (with the idea of “teaching through entertaining” springing up), those upholding the values of nature and the countryside, and those that generally had a positive quality, especially when looking at children’s theater.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiśniewska-Grabarczyk |first=Anna |date=September 2016 |title=Theatre and Drama of Socialist Realism in the Context of Cryptotexts |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318395841 |journal=Polish Literary Journal of the University of Lodz |volume=37 |issue=7 |pages=79–80 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>
[[File:Moscow-Bolshoi-Theare-1.jpg|thumb|Photo of the [[Bolshoi Theatre|Bolshoi Theater]] in Moscow]]
Reinvention of old forms took place, along with the creation of new theatrical movements. [[Opera]] as a theatrical form was reinterpreted and reinvented throughout the Soviet Union, moving away from its aristocratic roots and towards the support of the new state.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kotkina |first=Irina |date=2013 |title=Soviet Empire and Operatic Realm: Stalinist Search for the Model Soviet Opera |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24372082 |journal=Revue des études slaves |volume=84 |issue=3 |page=508 |doi=10.4000/res.1163 |jstor=24372082 }}</ref> By the 1930s, the [[Bolshoi Theatre|Bolshoi Theater]] in particular became a symbol of [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] power, and the question became how to best integrate socialist realism into an opera that could be performed there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kotkina |first=Irina |date=2013 |title=Soviet Empire and Operatic Realm: Stalinist Search for the Model Soviet Opera |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24372082 |journal=Revue des études slaves |volume=84 |issue=3 |page=509 |doi=10.4000/res.1163 |jstor=24372082 }}</ref> The [[Union of Russian Composers|Union of Soviet Composers]], established 1932, played a role towards creating these new operas, and spoke about the importance of socialist realism in opposition to modernistic art.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kotkina |first=Irina |date=2013 |title=Soviet Empire and Operatic Realm: Stalinist Search for the Model Soviet Opera |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24372082 |journal=Revue des études slaves |volume=84 |issue=3 |page=510 |doi=10.4000/res.1163 |jstor=24372082 }}</ref>

==== China ====
Though socialist realism was created by and is thought to mainly apply to countries within the Soviet Bloc, China in the late 18th century can be seen to be influenced by similar ideas, often taking direct inspiration from them.
[[File:田汉.gif|left|thumb|Photo of [[Tian Han]], playwright and president of the [[China Theatre Association|China Theater Association]]]]
Theater in China fell under the state’s purview after the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]], led partly by poet and playwright [[Tian Han]], President of the [[China Theatre Association|China Theater Association]] (among other honors). He pushed for theatrical reform in a socialist manner, primarily focused on transferring ownership from private troupes to state ones, but additionally on the subject matter of the plays themselves.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Xiaomei |title=Performing the Socialist State: Modern Chinese Theater and Film Culture |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2023 |location=New York |page=144}}</ref> This focus on private ownership as something to be avoided is similar to concerns seen in the Soviet Union, as is the nationalization of theater.

In the midst of these reforms, ideas around feminism and how it tied into socialism emerged, specifically with regards to theater. [[Bai Wei (writer)|Bai Wei]], inspired by Tian Han, developed a style of theater in the 1920s that focused specifically on women within a patriarchal society, and the struggle to break free of it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Xiaomei |title=Performing the Socialist State: Modern Chinese Theater and Film Culture |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2023 |location=New York |page=174}}</ref> She additionally incorporated ideas of socialist realism within her work, though did break from it in some ways, including the fact that her characters were more individualized and less collective. Strong female characters were, however, idealized and put forward in Chinese socialist realism, with these women often shown making some sort of sacrifice or grand action in service of a greater cause.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Xiaomei |title=Performing the Socialist State: Modern Chinese Theater and Film Culture |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2023 |location=New York |page=175}}</ref>

Socialist realism in Chinese theater can be seen to hone in on the ideas that it is more valuable to take action as a group, together, than individually. This is evident from plays put on during the [[Cultural Revolution]], where common themes included a large group standing up to imperialist forces (such as a [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion]], for example), with the individual characters within the play being less important than the overarching power struggle occurring.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Odom |first=Glenn |date=2014 |title=Socialist Realism and New Subjectivities: Modern Acting in Gao Xingjian's Cold Theatre |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43187291 |journal=Asian Theatre Journal |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=164 |doi=10.1353/atj.2014.0023 |jstor=43187291 }}</ref> By abstracting the conflicts to those occurring on a higher level, these plays hoped to educate and influence the people watching them.