Editing Sierra Leone (section)

=== Independence and post-independence era ===
On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai led Sierra Leone to independence from Great Britain and became the country's first prime minister. Sierra Leone had its own parliament and its own prime minister, and had the ability to make its own laws, however, as with countries such as Canada and Australia, Sierra Leone remained a "Dominion" and Queen Elizabeth was Queen of the independent [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Dominion of Sierra Leone]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kargbo|first1=Michael S.|title=British Foreign Policy and the Conflict in Sierra Leone, 1991–2001|date=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfW5ACrYksQC&pg=PA70|pages=70|isbn=9783039103324|access-date=19 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fyle|first=Magbaily C.|title=Historical Dictionary of Sierra Leone|date=2006|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Maryland|isbn=978-0-8108-5339-3|pages=XVII–XXII|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000fyle}}</ref> The Dominion of Sierra Leone retained a parliamentary system of government and was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The leader of the main opposition [[All People's Congress]] (APC), Siaka Stevens, along with Isaac Wallace-Johnson, another outspoken critic of the SLPP government, were arrested and placed under [[house arrest]] in Freetown.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/27/newsid_2502000/2502411.stm |title=BBC On This Day {{pipe}} 27 {{pipe}} 1961: Sierra Leone wins independence |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=20 May 2012 |date=27 April 1961}}</ref>

In May 1962, Sierra Leone held its [[Sierra Leonean general election, 1962|first general election]] as an independent state. The [[Sierra Leone People's Party]] (SLPP) won a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] of seats in parliament, and Milton Margai was re-elected as prime minister. Margai was popular among Sierra Leoneans during his time in power. He was neither corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of his power or status.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sierra-leone.org/Heroes/heroes8.html|title=Sierra Leone Web – Sierra Leonean Heroes – Achievement of Independence|website=sierra-leone.org|access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref> He based the government on the [[rule of law]] and the separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly viable representative structures. Margai employed a brokerage style of politics, by sharing power among political parties and interest groups; especially the involvement of powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, most of whom were key allies of his government.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

==== Albert Margai's tenure (1964–1967) ====
Upon Milton Margai's unexpected death in 1964, his younger [[half-brother]], Sir Albert Margai, was appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert's leadership was briefly challenged by Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who questioned Sir Albert's succession to the SLPP leadership position.  However, Karefa-Smart failed to receive broad support within the SLPP in his attempt to oust Albert Margai as both the leader of the SLPP and prime minister. Soon after Albert Margai was sworn in as prime minister, he fired several senior government officials who had served in his elder brother Sir Milton's government, viewing them as a threat to his administration, including Karefa-Smart.

Sir Albert resorted to increasingly [[authoritarian]] actions in response to protests and enacted several laws against the opposition All People's Congress, while attempting to establish a [[one-party state]].<ref name="Murtala Mohammed Kamara">{{cite web |url=http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/printer_200517413.shtml |title=Sierra Leone was ripe for Independence: Exclusive interview with Reginald Boltman |publisher=News.sl |date=28 February 2011 |author=Murtala Mohammed Kamara |access-date=17 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126085732/http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/printer_200517413.shtml |archive-date=26 November 2013  }}</ref><ref name="Momoh">{{cite web|last=Momoh |first=John |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201105040814.html |title=Sierra Leone: Viewpoint – Celebrating a New Nation! |publisher=allAfrica.com |date=4 May 2011 |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> Sir Albert was opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing executive powers to the Paramount Chiefs, many of whom had been allies of his late brother Sir Milton. Accordingly, they began to consider Sir Albert a threat to the ruling houses across the country. Margai appointed many non-Creoles to the country's [[civil service]] in Freetown, in an overall diversification of the civil service in the capital, which had been dominated by members of the Creole ethnic group. As a result, Albert Margai became unpopular in the Creole community, many of whom had supported Sir Milton. Margai sought to make the army homogeneously [[Mende people|Mende]],<ref name="Harkness-2016">{{Cite journal|title=SAGE Journals: Your gateway to world-class journal research|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=60|issue=4|pages=587–616|doi=10.1177/0022002714545332|year = 2016|last1 = Harkness|first1 = Kristen A.|hdl=10023/9391|s2cid=54538341|hdl-access=free |issn=0022-0027 }}</ref> his own ethnic group, and was accused of favouring members of the Mende for prominent positions.

In 1967, riots broke out in Freetown against Margai's policies. In response, he declared a [[state of emergency]] across the country. Sir Albert was accused of corruption and of a policy of [[affirmative action]] in favour of the Mende ethnic group.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Pham |first = John-Peter |title = Child soldiers, adult interests: the global dimensions of the Sierra Leonean tragedy |publisher = Nova Publishers |year = 2005 |pages = 33–35 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnPFKpwoIkIC&pg=PA32 |isbn = 978-1-59454-671-6 |access-date = 17 June 2014}}</ref> He also endeavoured to change Sierra Leone from a democracy to a [[one-party state]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=End of The Exception |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,941075,00.html |magazine=Time |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629005010/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,941075,00.html?iid=chix-sphere |archive-date=29 June 2011 |date=31 March 1967 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== 1967 General Election and military coups (1967–1968) ====
The APC, with its leader [[Siaka Stevens]], narrowly won a small majority of seats in Parliament over the SLPP in a closely contested [[Sierra Leonean general election, 1967|1967 general election]]. Stevens was sworn in as prime minister on 21 March 1967.

Within hours after taking office, Stevens was ousted in a bloodless [[1967 Sierra Leonean coups d'état|military coup]] led by [[Brigadier General]] [[David Lansana]], the commander of the [[Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces|Sierra Leone Armed Forces]]. He was a close ally of Albert Margai, who had appointed him to the position in 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under [[house arrest]] in Freetown and insisted that the determination of the Prime Minister should await the election of the tribal representatives to the House. Stevens was later freed and fled the country, going into exile in neighbouring Guinea. However, on 23 March 1967, a group of military officers in the Sierra Leone Army led by Brigadier General [[Andrew Juxon-Smith]], staged a counter-coup against Commander Lansana. They seized control of the government, arrested Lansana, and suspended the constitution. The group set up the [[National Reformation Council]] (NRC), with Andrew Juxon-Smith as its chairman and Head of State of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldrover.com/history/sierra_leone_history.html |title=History of Sierra Leone |publisher=Worldrover.com |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref>

On 18 April 1968 a group of low-ranking soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army who called themselves the Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM), led by Brigadier General [[John Amadu Bangura]], [[Sergeants' Coup (Sierra Leone)|overthrew]] the NRC [[Military junta|junta]]. The ACRM junta arrested many senior NRC members. They reinstated the constitution and returned power to Stevens, who at last assumed the office of prime minister.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Gberie|first =Lansana |title = A dirty war in West Africa: the RUF and the destruction of Sierra Leone |publisher =C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |year =2005 |pages = 26–27 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=OeBYQAFPXxsC&pg=PA34|isbn =978-1-85065-742-2|access-date =17 June 2014}}</ref>

Stevens had Bangura arrested in 1970 and charged with conspiracy and treason. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, despite the fact that it was Bangura whose actions led to Stevens' return to power.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.focus-on-sierra-leone.co.uk/Vol3_3.htm |title=focus-on-sierra-leone.co.uk |website=www.focus-on-sierra-leone.co.uk |access-date=2018-07-11 |archive-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712001509/http://www.focus-on-sierra-leone.co.uk/Vol3_3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Brigadier Lansana and [[Samuel Hinga Norman|Hinga Norman]], the main army officers involved in the first coup (1967), were unceremoniously dismissed from the armed forces and made to serve time in prison. Norman was a guard to [[Governor-general]] [[Henry Josiah Lightfoot Boston|Sir Henry Lightfoot-Boston]].<ref name="Humphrey"/> Lansana was later tried and found guilty of treason and sentenced to death in 1975.<ref name="Humphrey" />

==== One-party state and dawn of the 'Republic' (1968–1991) ====
[[File: All People's Congress political rally Sierra Leone 1968.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|An [[All People's Congress|APC]] political rally in the northern town of [[Kabala, Sierra Leone|Kabala]] outside the home of supporters of the rival [[Sierra Leone People's Party|SLPP]] in 1968]]

Stevens assumed power as prime minister again in 1968, following a series of coups.<ref name="Humphrey" /> Stevens had campaigned on a platform of socialist principles. However, when he became prime minister he abandoned his pre-election promises and employed an authoritarian model of governance.<ref name="trcsierraleone.org">[http://trcsierraleone.org/drwebsite/publish/v3a-c1.shtml?page=15 The Final Report of the Truth & Reconciliation Commission of Sierra Leone].</ref> During his first decade or so in power, Stevens renegotiated some of what he called "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by his predecessors, both Albert Margai of the SLPP and Juxon-Smith of the NRC. Some of these policies by the SLPP and the NRC were said to have left the country in an economically deprived state.<ref name="Humphrey" /> 

Stevens reorganised the country's oil refinery, the government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, and a cement factory.<ref>David Harris. ''Sierra Leone: A Political History'', pp. 67–70, New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|9780199361762}}. $30.00</ref> Stevens began efforts that would later improve transportation and movements between the provinces and the city of Freetown. Roads and hospitals were constructed in the provinces, and Paramount Chiefs and provincial peoples became a prominent force in Freetown. Under the pressure of several coup attempts, real or perceived, Stevens' rule grew more and more [[authoritarian]], and his relationship with some of his ardent supporters deteriorated. He removed the SLPP party from competitive politics in general elections, some believed, through the use of violence and intimidation. To maintain the support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.

After the return to civilian rule, [[by-election]]s were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed. In November 1968, unrest in the provinces led Stevens to declare a state of emergency across the country. Many senior officers in the Sierra Leone Army were greatly disappointed with Stevens' policies and his handling of the Sierra Leone Military, but none could confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who had reinstated Stevens as prime minister, was widely considered the only person who could control Stevens. The army was devoted to Bangura. In January 1970, Bangura was arrested and charged with [[Conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy]] and plotting to commit a coup against the Stevens government. After a trial that lasted a few months, Bangura was [[convicted]]; on 29 March 1970, Brigadier Bangura was executed by hanging in Freetown.

After the execution of Bangura, a group of soldiers loyal to the executed general held a [[mutiny]] in Freetown and other parts of the country in opposition to Stevens' government. Dozens of soldiers were arrested and convicted by a [[court martial]] in Freetown for their participation in the mutiny against the president. Among the soldiers arrested was a little-known army [[corporal]], [[Foday Sankoh]], a strong Bangura supporter, who would later form the [[Revolutionary United Front|Revolutionary United Front (RUF)]]. Corporal Sankoh was convicted and jailed for seven years at the Pademba Road Prison in Freetown.

In April 1971, a new republican constitution was adopted under which Stevens became president. In the 1972 by-elections, the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and procedural obstruction by the APC and militia. These problems became so severe that the SLPP boycotted the [[Sierra Leonean general election, 1973|1973 general election]]; as a result, the APC won 84 of the 85 elected seats.<ref>{{Cite book |last =Rotberg |first =Robert I. |title =State failure and state weakness in a time of terror |publisher = Brookings Institution Press|year =2003 |page = 80 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=oajfCpTpgCIC&pg=PA80|isbn = 978-0-8157-7574-4|access-date = 17 June 2014}}</ref>

An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed. In mid-1974, Guinean soldiers, as requested by Stevens, were stationed in the country to help maintain his hold on power, as Stevens was a close ally of then-Guinean president [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]]. In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition for a second five-year term as president. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army and government officials were executed after being convicted of attempting a coup to topple president Stevens' government.

In 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against the government disrupted Sierra Leone's politics. The demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens' own personal Special Security Division (SSD), a heavily armed paramilitary force he had created to protect him and maintain his hold on power.<ref>Tam-Baryoh, David, ["Politicized security forces or tribalized national politics; which is which?"] ''Newstime Africa''. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901024455/ |date=1 September 2012 }}. Retrieved 26 February 2013.</ref> SSD officers were loyal to Stevens and were deployed across the country to clamp down on any rebellion or protest against Stevens' government. [[Sierra Leonean parliamentary election, 1977|A general election]] was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15. In 1978, the APC-dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state. The 1978 constitution made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.<ref>Gberie, Lansana (1998). ''[http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/30/ War and state collapse: The case of Sierra Leone]'' (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University</ref> This move led to another major demonstration against the government in many parts of the country, but it was also put down by the army and Stevens' SSD force.

Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but he kept the country stable and from collapsing into civil war. He created government institutions still in use. Stevens reduced ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominant APC government.

Siaka Stevens retired from politics in November 1985 . The APC named a new presidential candidate, [[Major General]] [[Joseph Saidu Momoh]], head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces. General Momoh had been loyal to Stevens, who had appointed him to the position. Like Stevens, Momoh was also a member of the minority [[Limba people (Sierra Leone)|Limba]] ethnic group. As the sole candidate, Momoh was elected president without opposition and sworn in as Sierra Leone's second president on 28 November 1985 in Freetown. President Momoh appointed his former military colleague and key ally, Major General Mohamed Tarawalie to succeed him as the head of the Sierra Leone Military. President Momoh named James Bambay Kamara as the head of the [[Sierra Leone Police]]. Bambay Kamara was also a strong Momoh loyalist and supporter. Momoh broke from former president Siaka Stevens by integrating the powerful SSD into the Sierra Leone Police as a special [[paramilitary force]]. Under President Stevens, the SSD had been a powerful personal force used to maintain his hold on power, independent from the Sierra Leone Military and Sierra Leone Police Force. The Sierra Leone Police under Bambay Kamara's leadership was accused of physical violence, arrest, and intimidation against critics of President Momoh's government.

President Momoh's strong links with the army and his verbal attacks on corruption earned him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. With the lack of new faces in the new APC cabinet under President Momoh and the return of many of the old faces from Stevens' government, criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens.

The next few years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise his war against corruption, President Momoh announced a "[[Code of Conduct]] for Political Leaders and Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow President Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice-President [[Francis Minah]], who was convicted of plotting the coup and executed by [[hanging]] in 1989.