Editing Rhetoric (section)

===Ancient Greece===
In Europe, organized thought about public speaking began in [[ancient Greece]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=G.A.|year=1994|title=A New History of Classical Rhetoric|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=3}}</ref>

In [[ancient Greece]], the earliest mention of oratorical skill occurs in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'', in which heroes like [[Achilles]], [[Hector]], and [[Odysseus]] were honored for their ability to advise and exhort their peers and followers (the {{transliteration|grc|Laos}} or army) to wise and appropriate action. With the rise of the democratic {{transliteration|grc|polis}}, speaking skill was adapted to the needs of the public and political life of cities in ancient Greece. Greek citizens used [[oratory (speech)|oratory]] to make political and judicial decisions, and to develop and disseminate philosophical ideas. For modern students, it can be difficult to remember that the wide use and availability of written texts is a phenomenon that was just coming into vogue in [[Classical Greece]]. In Classical times, many of the great thinkers and political leaders performed their works before an audience, usually in the context of a competition or contest for fame, political influence, and cultural capital. In fact, many of them are known only through the texts that their students, followers, or detractors wrote down. {{transliteration|grc|Rhetor}} was the Greek term for "orator": A {{transliteration|grc|rhetor}} was a citizen who regularly addressed juries and political assemblies and who was thus understood to have gained some knowledge about public speaking in the process, though in general facility with language was often referred to as {{transliteration|grc|logôn techne}}, "skill with arguments" or "verbal artistry".<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|author-link=Mogens Herman Hansen|first=Mogens Herman|last=Hansen|title=The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes|publisher=Blackwell|year=1991}}
|2={{cite book|first=Josiah|last=Ober|title=Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1989}}
|3={{cite book|first=Jeffrey|last=Walker|title=Rhetoric and Poetics in Antiquity|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000}}
}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2023}}

Possibly the first study about the power of language may be attributed to the philosopher [[Empedocles]] (d. {{circa|{{BCE|444}}}}), whose theories on human knowledge would provide a basis for many future rhetoricians. The first written manual is attributed to [[Corax of Syracuse|Corax]] and his pupil [[Tisias]]. Their work, as well as that of many of the early rhetoricians, grew out of the courts of law; Tisias, for example, is believed to have written judicial speeches that others delivered in the courts.

Rhetoric evolved as an important art, one that provided the orator with the forms, means, and strategies for persuading an audience of the correctness of the orator's arguments. Today the term ''rhetoric'' can be used at times to refer only to the form of argumentation, often with the pejorative connotation that rhetoric is a means of obscuring the truth. Classical [[philosopher]]s believed quite the contrary: the skilled use of rhetoric was essential to the discovery of truths, because it provided the means of ordering and clarifying arguments.

====Sophists====
{{Main|Sophist|l1=Sophists}}

Teaching in oratory was popularized in {{BCE|the 5th century}} by itinerant teachers known as [[sophist]]s, the best known of whom were [[Protagoras]] ({{circa|{{BCE|481–420}}}}), [[Gorgias]] ({{circa|{{BCE|483–376}}}}), and [[Isocrates]] ({{BCE|436–338}}). [[Aspasia]] of Miletus is believed to be one of the first women to engage in private and public rhetorical activities as a Sophist.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/rhetoricaltradit00bizz |title=The Rhetorical tradition: readings from classical times to the present |publisher=Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-312-00348-7 |editor1-last=Bizzell |editor1-first=Patricia |location=Boston |pages=232 |oclc=21325600 |editor2-last=Herzberg |editor2-first=Bruce |url-access=registration}}</ref> The Sophists were a disparate group who travelled from city to city, teaching in public places to attract students and offer them an education. Their central focus was on {{transliteration|grc|logos}}, or what we might broadly refer to as discourse, its functions and powers.{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} They defined parts of speech, analyzed poetry, parsed close synonyms, invented argumentation strategies, and debated the nature of reality.{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} They claimed to make their students better, or, in other words, to teach virtue. They thus claimed that human excellence was not an accident of fate or a prerogative of noble birth, but an art or "{{transliteration|grc|techne}}" that could be taught and learned. They were thus among the first humanists.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-10-01 |title=on humanism past & present {{!}} American Academy of Arts and Sciences |url=https://www.amacad.org/publication/daedalus/humanism-past-present |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=www.amacad.org |language=en}}</ref>

Several Sophists also questioned received wisdom about the gods and the Greek culture, which they believed was taken for granted by Greeks of their time, making these Sophists among the first agnostics. For example, some argued that cultural practices were a function of convention or {{transliteration|grc|[[Law|nomos]]}} rather than blood or birth or {{transliteration|grc|[[phusis]]}}.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Taylor |first1=C.C.W. |title=The Sophists |date=2020 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sophists/ |access-date=2024-10-27 |edition=Fall 2020 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |last2=Lee |first2=Mi-Kyoung}}</ref> They argued further that the morality or immorality of any action could not be judged outside of the cultural context within which it occurred. The well-known phrase, "Man is the measure of all things" arises from this belief.{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} One of the Sophists' most famous, and infamous, doctrines has to do with probability and counter arguments. They taught that every argument could be countered with an opposing argument, that an argument's effectiveness derived from how "likely" it appeared to the audience (its probability of seeming true), and that any probability argument could be countered with an inverted probability argument. Thus, if it seemed likely that a strong, poor man were guilty of robbing a rich, weak man, the strong poor man could argue, on the contrary, that this very likelihood (that he would be a suspect) makes it unlikely that he committed the crime, since he would most likely be apprehended for the crime.{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} They also taught and were known for their ability to make the weaker (or worse) argument the stronger (or better).{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}} [[Aristophanes]] famously parodies the clever inversions that sophists were known for in his play ''[[The Clouds]]''.{{citation needed|reason=|date=September 2023}}

The word "sophistry" developed negative connotations in ancient Greece that continue today, but in ancient Greece, Sophists were popular and well-paid professionals, respected for their abilities and also criticized for their excesses.

According to William Keith and Christian Lundberg, as the Greek society shifted towards more democratic values, the Sophists were responsible for teaching the newly democratic Greek society the importance of persuasive speech and strategic communication for its new governmental institutions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keith |first1=William M. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/166373607 |title=The essential guide to rhetoric |last2=Lundberg |first2=Christian O. |date=2008 |publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's |isbn=978-0-312-47239-9 |location=Boston |oclc=166373607}}</ref>

====Isocrates====
{{Main|Isocrates}}

Isocrates ({{BCE|436–338}}), like the Sophists, taught public speaking as a means of human improvement, but he worked to distinguish himself from the Sophists, whom he saw as claiming far more than they could deliver. He suggested that while an art of virtue or excellence did exist, it was only one piece, and the least, in a process of self-improvement that relied much more on honing one's talent, desire, constant practice, and the imitation of good models. Isocrates believed that practice in speaking publicly about noble themes and important questions would improve the character of both speaker and audience while also offering the best service to a city. Isocrates was an outspoken champion of rhetoric as a mode of civic engagement.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|author=[[Isocrates]]|chapter=Against the Sophists|title=Isocrates with an English Translation|translator-first=George|translator-last=Norlin|translator-link=George Norlin|location=New York|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|year=1929|volume=II|pages=160–177|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/isocrateswitheng02isocuoft/page/159/mode/1up|orig-date={{circa|{{BCE|392}}}} }}
|2={{cite book|author=[[Isocrates]]|chapter=Antidosis|title=Isocrates with an English Translation|translator-first=George|translator-last=Norlin|translator-link=George Norlin|location=New York|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|year=1929|volume=II|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/isocrateswitheng02isocuoft/page/179/mode/1up|pages=181–365|orig-date={{circa|{{BCE|353}}}} }}
}}</ref> He thus wrote his speeches as "models" for his students to imitate in the same way that poets might imitate Homer or Hesiod, seeking to inspire in them a desire to attain fame through civic leadership. His was the first permanent school in [[Athens]] and it is likely that [[Plato's Academy]] and [[Aristotle's Lyceum]] were founded in part as a response to Isocrates. Though he left no handbooks, his speeches (''"[[Antidosis (treatise)|Antidosis]]"'' and ''"[[Against the Sophists]]"'' are most relevant to students of rhetoric) became models of oratory and keys to his entire educational program. He was one of the canonical "[[Ten Attic Orators]]". He influenced [[Cicero]] and [[Quintilian]], and through them, the entire educational system of the west.

====Plato====
{{Main|Plato|Platonism}}
[[Plato]] ({{BCE|427–347}}) outlined the differences between true and false rhetoric in a number of dialogues—particularly the ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'' and ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', dialogues in which Plato disputes the [[sophistry|sophistic]] notion that the art of persuasion (the Sophists' art, which he calls "rhetoric"), can exist independent of the art of [[dialectic]]. Plato claims that since Sophists appeal only to what seems probable, they are not advancing their students and audiences, but simply flattering them with what they want to hear. While Plato's condemnation of rhetoric is clear in the ''Gorgias'', in the ''Phaedrus'' he suggests the possibility of a true art wherein rhetoric is based upon the knowledge produced by dialectic. He relies on a dialectically informed rhetoric to appeal to the main character, Phaedrus, to take up philosophy. Thus Plato's rhetoric is actually dialectic (or philosophy) "turned" toward those who are not yet philosophers and are thus unready to pursue dialectic directly. Plato's animosity against rhetoric, and against the Sophists, derives not only from their inflated claims to teach virtue and their reliance on appearances, but from the fact that his teacher, Socrates, was sentenced to death after Sophists' efforts.

Some scholars, however, see Plato not as an opponent of rhetoric but rather as a nuanced rhetorical theorist who dramatized rhetorical practice in his dialogues and imagined rhetoric as more than just oratory.{{r|KBB}}

==== Aristotle ====
[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A marble bust of Aristotle]]
{{Main|Rhetoric (Aristotle)}}Aristotle: Rhetoric is an antistrophes to dialectic. "Let rhetoric [be defined as] an ability [dynamis], in each [particular] case, to see the available means of persuasion." "Rhetoric is a counterpart of dialectic" — an art of practical civic reasoning, applied to deliberative, judicial, and "display" speeches in political assemblies, lawcourts, and other public gatherings.{{more citations needed section|date=September 2013}}

[[Aristotle]] ({{BCE|384–322}}) was a student of Plato who set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today. In the first sentence of ''[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|The Art of Rhetoric]]'', Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the {{transliteration|grc|[[antistrophe]]}} of dialectic".<ref name=Aristotle>{{cite book|author=Aristotle|title=Rhetoric}}</ref>{{rp|at=I.1}} As the "{{transliteration|grc|antistrophe}}" of a Greek [[ode]] responds to and is patterned after the structure of the "{{transliteration|grc|[[strophe]]}}" (they form two sections of the whole and are sung by two parts of the chorus), so the art of rhetoric follows and is structurally patterned after the art of dialectic because both are arts of discourse production. While dialectical methods are necessary to find truth in theoretical matters, rhetorical methods are required in practical matters such as adjudicating somebody's guilt or innocence when charged in a court of law, or adjudicating a prudent course of action to be taken in a deliberative assembly.

For Plato and Aristotle, dialectic involves persuasion, so when Aristotle says that rhetoric is the {{transliteration|grc|antistrophe}} of dialectic, he means that rhetoric as he uses the term has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to, but different from, the domain or scope of application of dialectic. Claude Pavur explains that "[t]he Greek prefix 'anti' does not merely designate opposition, but it can also mean 'in place of'".<ref>{{cite book|last=Pavur|first=Claude Nicholas|title=Nietzsche Humanist|year=1998|publisher=Marquette University Press|page=129}}</ref>

Aristotle's treatise on rhetoric systematically describes civic rhetoric as a human art or skill ({{transliteration|grc|techne}}). It is more of {{clarify|reason=what does that mean?|text=an objective theory|date=September 2023}} than it is an interpretive theory with a rhetorical tradition. Aristotle's art of rhetoric emphasizes persuasion as the purpose of rhetoric. His definition of rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion", essentially a mode of discovery, limits the art to the inventional process; Aristotle emphasizes the logical aspect of this process. A speaker supports the probability of a message by logical, ethical, and emotional proofs.

Aristotle identifies three steps or "offices" of rhetoric—invention, arrangement, and style—and three different types of rhetorical proof:{{r|Aristotle|at=I.2}}
; {{transliteration|grc|[[ethos]]}} : Aristotle's theory of character and how the character and credibility of a speaker can influence an audience to consider him/her to be believable—there being three qualities that contribute to a credible ethos: perceived intelligence, virtuous character, and goodwill
; {{transliteration|grc|[[pathos]]}} : the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment through metaphor, amplification, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience
; {{transliteration|grc|[[logos]]}} : the use of reasoning, either [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] or [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], to construct an argument

Aristotle emphasized ''[[Deductive reasoning|enthymematic reasoning]]'' as central to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it. An "enthymeme" follows the form of a [[syllogism]], however it excludes either the major or minor premise. An enthymeme is persuasive because the audience provides the missing premise. Because the audience participates in providing the missing premise, they are more likely to be persuaded by the message.

Aristotle identified three different types or genres of civic rhetoric:{{r|Aristotle|at=I.3}}
; [[Forensic rhetoric|Forensic]] (also known as judicial) : concerned with determining the truth or falseness of events that took place in the past and issues of guilt—for example, in a courtroom{{r|Aristotle|at=I.10–15}}
; [[Deliberative rhetoric|Deliberative]] (also known as political) : concerned with determining whether or not particular actions should or should not be taken in the future—for example, making laws
; [[Epideictic]] (also known as ceremonial) : concerned with praise and blame, values, right and wrong, demonstrating beauty and skill in the present—for example, a eulogy or a wedding toast

Another Aristotelian doctrine was the idea of topics (also referred to as [[The Common Topics|common topics]] or commonplaces). Though the term had a wide range of application (as a memory technique or compositional exercise, for example) it most often referred to the "seats of argument"—the list of categories of thought or modes of reasoning—that a speaker could use to generate arguments or proofs. The topics were thus a heuristic or inventional tool designed to help speakers categorize and thus better retain and apply frequently used types of argument. For example, since we often see effects as "like" their causes, one way to invent an argument (about a future effect) is by discussing the cause (which it will be "like"). This and other rhetorical topics derive from Aristotle's belief that there are certain predictable ways in which humans (particularly non-specialists) draw conclusions from premises. Based upon and adapted from his dialectical Topics, the rhetorical topics became a central feature of later rhetorical theorizing, most famously in Cicero's work of that name.