Editing Reduplication (section)

==Examples==
===Indo-European===
====Proto-Indo-European====
The [[Proto-Indo-European language]] used partial reduplication of a consonant and ''e'' in many [[Proto-Indo-European verb#Stative|stative aspect]] verb forms. The perfect or preterite (past) tense of some [[Ancient Greek#Reduplication|Ancient Greek]],{{sfn|Smyth|1920|loc=[http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/smyth_2Vp_uni.htm §440]: simple consonant + e}} [[Gothic language#Verbs|Gothic]], [[Latin]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Old Irish]], and [[Old Norse]] verbs preserve this reduplication:
* Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|λύω}} ''lúō'' 'I free' vs. {{lang|grc|λέλυκα}} ''léluka'' "I have freed"
* Gothic ''hald'' "I hold" vs. ''haíhald'' (''hĕhald'') "I/he held"
* Latin {{lang|la|currō}} "I run" vs. {{lang|la|cucurrī}} "I ran" or "have run"
* Old Irish {{lang|sga|maidid}} "it breaks" vs. {{lang|sga|memaid}} "it broke"
* Old Norse ''rœ'' "I row" vs. ''rera'' (''røra'') "I rowed"
* Sanskrit {{lang|sa|लिखति}} ''likhati'' 'he writes' vs. {{lang|sa|लिलेख}} ''lilekha'' "he has written" or "he wrote"
* A rare modern English reflex is ''do'' vs. ''did''

Proto-Indo-European also used reduplication for the [[Proto-Indo-European verb#Root aspect|imperfective aspect]]. Ancient Greek preserves this reduplication in the present tense of some verbs. Usually, but not always, this is reduplication of a consonant and ''i'', and contrasts with e-reduplication in the perfect:{{sfn|Smyth|1920|loc=[http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/smyth_2Vp_uni.htm §447]: initial consonant + i}}

*{{lang|grc|δίδωμι}} ''dídōmi'' "I give" (present)
*{{lang|grc|δέδωκα}} ''dédōka'' "I have given" (perfect)
* *{{lang|grc|σίσδω}} ''sísdō'' → {{lang|grc|ἵζω}} ''hízō'' "I set" (present)
* *{{lang|grc|σέσδομαι}} ''sésdomai'' → {{lang|grc|ἕζομαι}} ''hézomai'' "I sit down" (present; from sd-, [[Indo-European ablaut#Ablaut in Proto-Indo-European|zero-grade]] of [[Proto-Indo-European root|root]] in *sed-os → ἕδος ''hédos'' "seat, abode")

Reduplication in nouns was rare, the best example being Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*kʷé-kʷl-os}}'' '[[wheel]]' (cf. [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ''kãklas'' 'neck', [[Sanskrit]] ''cakrá'' 'wheel', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''κύκλος'' (kýklos) 'circle'), which doubled *''kʷel-o-'' (cf. [[Old Prussian]] ''kelan'' 'wheel', [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''pêl'' 'ball'),{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=264–265}} itself likely a deverbative of *''kʷelh₁-'' 'to turn'.

====English====
English has several types of reduplication, ranging from informal expressive vocabulary (the first four forms below) to grammatically meaningful forms (the last two below). See also the [[Irreversible binomial#With alliteration|alliteration section of the irreversible binomial article]] for cases like ''flip-flop'' and ''dribs and drabs''.

* '''Rhyming reduplication''': Artsy-fartsy, [[boogie-woogie]], okey-dokey, easy-peasy, hanky-panky, [[hocus-pocus]], hoity-toity, hokey-pokey, [[Holy Moly|holy moly]], [[hurdy-gurdy]], itsy-bitsy, namby-pamby, raggle-taggle, ragtag, razzle-dazzle, super-duper, teenie-weenie, willy-nilly, wingding.
* '''Exact reduplications''': Ack ack, aye-aye, back-to-back, blah-blah, boo-boo, bye-bye, chin-chin, choo-choo, chow-chow, dik-dik, doo-doo, fifty-fifty, gogo, ha ha, half-and-half, honk-honk, housey-housey, juju, klop-klop, mama, [[muumuu]], night-night, no-no, papa, pee-pee, pip-pip, [[pom-pom]], poo-poo, pooh-pooh, [[Miniature golf|putt putt]], so-so, ta-ta, there-there, tut-tut, [[Tutu (clothing)|tutu]], [[Wah-wah pedal|wah-wah]], wee-wee, [[yo-yo]]. While in many forms of English, exact reduplications can also be used to emphasise the strength of a word ("He wants it ''now'' now"), in South African English, 'now-now' means 'relatively soon'.
** lexical reduplication: 'Each-each boy take one-one chair.' [[Indian English]]
* '''[[Ablaut reduplication]]s''': In [[ablaut]] reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a [[high vowel]] or [[front vowel]] (typically ɪ as in hit) and the reduplicated vowel is a [[low vowel]] or [[back vowel]] (typically æ as in ''cat'' or ɒ as in ''top''). Examples include: bric-a-brac, chit-chat, clip-clop, ding-dong, flimflam, [[Flip-flops|flip-flop]], [[hip-hop]], jibber-jabber, kitty-cat, knick-knack, mishmash, [[ping-pong]], pitter-patter, riffraff, sing-song, slipslop, splish-splash, tick-tock, ticky-tacky, tip-top, whiff-whaff, wibble-wobble, wishy-washy, zig-zag.  Three-part ablaut sequences are less numerous, but are attested, e.g. [[tic-tac-toe]], bing-bang-boom, bish-bash-bosh, splish-splash-splosh<ref>Donka Minkova, "Ablaut reduplication in English: the criss-crossing of prosody and verbal art", ''English Language and Linguistics'' '''6''':1:133–169 (May 2002), {{doi|10.1017/S1360674302001077}}</ref> and "[[Live, Laugh, Love]]". [[Spike Milligan]]'s poem "[[On the Ning Nang Nong]]" achieves comic effect by varying the ordering of vowels in such triples: ''There's a Nong Nang Ning/Where the trees go Ping!''.
* '''[[Shm-reduplication]]''' can be used with most any word; e.g. ''baby-shmaby'', ''cancer-shmancer'' and ''fancy-shmancy''. This process is a feature of [[American English]] from [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], starting among the [[American Jews]] of [[New York City]], then the [[New York City English|New York dialect]] and then the whole country.

Of the above types, only shm-reduplication is [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]], meaning that examples of the first three are fixed forms and new forms are not easily accepted.

* '''[[Comparative]] reduplication''': In the sentence "John's apple looked redder and redder," the reduplication of the [[comparative]] indicates that the comparative is becoming more true over time, meaning roughly "John's apple looked progressively redder as time went on."  In particular, this construction does {{em|not}} mean that John's apple is redder than some other apple, which would be a possible interpretation in the absence of reduplication, e.g. in "John's apple looked redder."  With reduplication, the comparison is of the object being compared to itself over time.  Comparative reduplication always combines the reduplicated comparative with "and".  This construction is common in speech and is used even in formal speech settings, but it is less common in formal written texts.  Although English has simple constructs with similar meanings, such as "John's apple looked ever redder," these simpler constructs are rarely used in comparison with the reduplicative form.  Comparative reduplication is fully [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] and clearly changes the meaning of any comparative to a temporal one, despite the absence of any time-related words in the construction.  For example, the temporal meaning of "The frug seemed wuggier and wuggier" is clear: despite not knowing what a frug is or what wugginess is, it is easy to grasp that the apparent wugginess of the frug was increasing over time, as indicated by the reduplication of the comparative "wuggier".{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
* '''[[Contrastive focus reduplication]]''': Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]]) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of [[Platonic idealism|Platonic ideal]] of the noun, as in "Is that carrot ''cheese''cake or carrot ''cake'' cake?".{{sfn|Ghomeshi|Jackendoff|Rosen|Russell|2004}} This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. Furthermore, it is used to contrast "real" or "pure" things against imitations or less pure forms. For example, at a coffee shop one may be asked, "Do you want soy milk?" and respond, "No, I want ''milk'' milk." This gives the idea that they want "real" milk.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
* Intensificatory reduplication: Examples like ''a big, big problem,'' ''a long, long way'', or ''very very difficult'' are instances of intensificatory reduplication. This type of reduplication is used to intensify the meaning of the original word.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Watt |first=W. C. |date=1968 |title=English Reduplication |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/007542426800200109 |journal=Journal of English Linguistics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=96–122 |doi=10.1177/007542426800200109 |s2cid=220752157 |issn=0075-4242}}</ref> It's a way of expressing that something is not just big or long, but very big or very long. This type of reduplication is typically used only with a narrow range of words, and the meaning can often be inferred even if the specific combination is not a standard idiomatic expression. The more common items include [[Comparison (grammar)|gradable]] adjectives (e.g., ''big'', ''great'', ''deep'', ''bad'', ''old''), along with intensificatory adverbs (e.g., ''very'', ''really'', ''so'') and determiners (e.g., ''much''). This is only possible for pre-head [[Grammatical modifier|modifiers]], and not with other [[Grammatical relation|syntactic functions]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781316423530/type/book |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |date=2002-04-15 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43146-0 |edition=1 |pages=561 |doi=10.1017/9781316423530}}</ref> For example, ''a long long way'' is fine, but ''*the way is long long'' is ungrammatical, and ''I really really want it'' but not ''*I want it really really''.

The [[double is]]—such as "What I want is, is to go home"—is in some cases a type of reduplication, which may be regarded as non-standard or incorrect.

More can be learned about English reduplication in {{harvtxt|Thun|1963}}, {{harvtxt|Cooper|Ross|1975}}, and {{harvtxt|Nevins|Vaux|2003}}.

====Dutch====

While not common in Dutch, reduplication does exist. Most, but not all (e.g., ''pipi'', ''blauwblauw'' (laten), ''taaitaai'' (gingerbread)) reduplications in Dutch are [[loanword]]s (e.g., ''koeskoes'', ''bonbon'', (ik hoorde het) ''via via'') or imitative (e.g., ''tamtam'', ''tomtom'').{{sfn|Gilbers|2009}} Another example is a former safe sex campaign slogan in Flanders: ''Eerst bla-bla, dan boem-boem'' (''First talk, then have sex''; lit. ''First blah-blah, then boom-boom''). In Dutch the verb "gaan" (''to go'') can be used as an auxiliary verb, which can lead to a triplication: ''we gaan (eens) gaan gaan'' (we are going to get going). The use of ''gaan'' as an auxiliary verb with itself is considered incorrect, but is commonly used in Flanders.{{sfn|Taal.vrt.be|1999}} Numerous examples of reduplication in Dutch (and other languages) are discussed by Daniëls (2000).

====Afrikaans====
[[Afrikaans]] makes use of reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated and to denote a plural or event happening in more than one place.  For example, ''krap'' means "to scratch one's self," while ''krap-krap-krap'' means "to scratch one's self vigorously",{{sfn|van der Walt|2002}} whereas "dit het plek-plek gereën" means "it rained here and there".{{sfn|Botha|1984}} Reduplication in Afrikaans has been described extensively in the literature – see for example {{harvtxt|Botha|1988}}, {{harvtxt|Van Huyssteen|2004}} and {{harvtxt|Van Huyssteen|Wissing|2007}}. Further examples of this include: "koes" (to dodge) being reduplicated in the sentence "Piet hardloop koes-koes weg" (Piet is running away while constantly dodging / cringing); "sukkel" (to struggle) becoming "sukkel-sukkel" (making slow progress; struggling on); and "kierang" (to cheat) becoming "kierang-kierang" to indicate being cheated on repeatedly.{{sfn|Mount Allison University}}

====Romance====
In [[Italian language|Italian]] reduplication was used both to create new words or word associations (''tran-tran'', ''via via'', ''leccalecca'') and to intensify the meaning (''piano piano'' "very softly").{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

Common in [[Mediterranean Lingua Franca|Lingua Franca]], particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions:
''Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar.'' ("The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it."){{sfn|Corré|2005}}

Common uses for reduplication in [[French language|French]] are the creation of [[hypocoristic]]s for [[French names|names]], whereby ''Louise'' becomes ''Loulou'', and [[Zinedine Zidane]] becomes ''Zizou''; and in many nursery words, like ''dada'' 'horsie' (vs. ''cheval'' 'horse'), ''tati/tata'' 'auntie' (vs. ''tante'' 'aunt'), or ''tonton'' 'unkie' (vs. ''oncle'' 'uncle').

In [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]], reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from [[onomatopoeia]]) and expressions, for example,
*Romanian: ''mormăi'', ''țurțur'', ''dârdâi'', expressions ''talmeș-balmeș'', ''harcea-parcea'', ''terchea-berchea'', ''țac-pac'', ''calea-valea'', ''hodoronc-tronc''.
*Catalan: ''així així, aixina aixana, balandrim-balandram, baliga-balaga, banzim-banzam, barliqui-barloqui, barrija-barreja, bitllo-bitllo, bub-bub, bum-bum, but-but, catric-catrac, cloc-cloc, cloc-piu, corre-corrents, de nyigui-nyogui, farrigo-farrago, flist-flast, fru-fru, gara-gara, gloc-gloc, gori-gori, leri-leri, nap-buf, ning-nang, ning-ning, non-non, nyam-nyam, nyau-nyau, nyec-nyec, nyeu-nyeu, nyic-nyic, nyigo-nyigo, nyigui-nyogui, passa-passa, pengim-penjam, pif-paf, ping-pong, piu-piu, poti-poti, rau-rau, ringo-rango, rum-rum, taf-taf, tam-tam, tau-tau, tic-tac, tol·le-tol·le, tric-trac, trip-trap, tris-tras, viu-viu, xano-xano, xau-xau, xerric-xerrac, xim-xim, xino-xano, xip-xap, xiu-xiu, xup-xup, zig-zag, ziga-zaga, zim-zam, zing-zing, zub-zub, zum-zum''.

====Slavic====

The [[reduplication in the Russian language]] serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a [[hyphenated]] or repeated [[word]] (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to [[shm-reduplication]].{{sfn|Voinov|2012}}

====Celtic====
Reduplication is a common feature of [[Irish language|Irish]] and includes the examples ''rírá'', ''ruaille buaille'' both meaning "commotion" and ''fite fuaite'' meaning "intertwined".{{sfn|''Pota Focal''|loc=[http://www.potafocal.com/gt/?s=fite+fuaite "fite fuaite"]}}

====Indo-Aryan====
Typically all Indo-Aryan languages, like [[Hindi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] use partial or [[Echo word|echoic reduplication]] in some form or the other. It is usually used to sound casual, or in a suggestive manner. It is often used to mean ''etcetera''. For example, in Hindi, chai-shai (''chai'' means tea, while this phrase means tea or any other supplementary drink or tea along with snacks). Quite common in casual conversations are a few more examples like shopping-wopping, khana-wana.
South Asian Indo Aryan languages are also rich in other forms of reduplication: morphological (expressives), lexical (distributives), and phrasal (aspectual).
*morphological:
{{fs interlinear|indent=3
|मनात {हूर हूर} दाटून येते |c1={{sfn|Kulkarni|2013}}
|manaa-t hur-hur daaT.un yete
|mind-in longing choking comes
|'Yearning desire floods into my heart.' [[Marathi language|Marathi]]}}

Reduplication also occurs in the 3rd ''[[Sanskrit verbs|gaṇa]]'' (verb class) of the Sanskrit language: ''bibheti'' "he fears", ''bibharti'' "he bears", ''juhoti'' "he offers", ''dadāti'', "he gives". Even though the general idea is to reduplicate the verb root as a prefix, several sandhi rules change the outcome.

There are a number of constructions in Hindi and Urdu that are constructed by reduplication. Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, all have possibility of reduplications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Montaut |first=Annie |date=2009 |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=Rajendra |title=Reduplication and echo words in Hindi/Urdu |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00449691/document |journal=Annual Review of South Asian Languages and Linguistics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=matthewjmiller07|date=2015-02-11|title=Reduplication Reduplication in Hindi (Matthew Miller's Morphological Musings)|url=https://lisatravis2012.wordpress.com/2015/02/11/reduplication-reduplication-in-hindi-matthew-millers-morphological-musings/|access-date=2020-10-23|website=Morphology 440 640|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Dipti Misra |date=2012-12-08 |title=Introduction to Morphology, Syntax and Lexical Semantics of Hindi and Urdu |url=https://verbs.colorado.edu/hindiurdu/tutorial_slides/2-hindi-urdu-linguistics-dipti.pptx.pdf |website=verbs.colorado.edu}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!(1) Reduplication of numbers
!(2) Reduplication of pronouns
|-
|{{interlinear
  |{baccõ ko} ek-ek tɔfī do.
  |children.DAT one-one.REDUP toffee give.IMP
  |give <u>a</u> toffee <u>to each</u> child, <u>one toffee per child</u>.}}
|{{interlinear
  |tumne kyā-kyā dekhā?
  |you.ERG what-what.REDUP saw.MASC.PRF?
  |<u>what (all things)</u> did you see?}}
|-
|{{interlinear
  |{bacce-bacce ko} pacās-pacās tɔfiyā̃ milī̃.
  |child-child.DAT fifty-fifty toffees received.PRF.FEM.PL
  |<u>each and every child</u> received <u>50 toffees each</u>}}
|{{interlinear
  |jo-jo āẽge unhẽ kɛhnā.
  |who-who.NOM will-come them.DAT say.IMP.FUT
  |say to <u>whoever</u> will come <u>(to all and every visitor)</u>}}
|-
!(3) Reduplication of nouns
!(4) Reduplication of adjectives
|-
|{{interlinear
  |baccā-baccā jāntā hai.
  |child-child.NOM know.PTCP be.3.PRES?
  |<u>(each and) every</u> child knows.}}
|{{interlinear
  |ye garm-garm cāy piyo.
  |this hot-hot tea drink.2.IMP
  |drink this <u>hot</u> tea. (emphasis on hotness)}}
|-
|{{interlinear
  |cāy-śāy {ho jāye?}
  |tea-tea.NOM happen.PRF.SG.SUBJ?
  |shall we have a cup of tea? (emphasis on meeting <u>over tea</u>)}}
|{{interlinear
  |udhar harī-harī ghās hai.
  |{tither/that way} green-green grass be.3.PRS
  |there is <u>(so much)</u> green grass that way/over there. (emphasis on the quantity)}}
|-
!(5) Reduplication of verbs
!(6) Reduplication of adverbs
|-
|{{interlinear
  |khāte-khāte mat bolo.
  |eat-eat.PTCP.IPFV not talk.2.IMP
  |do not talk <u>while eating</u>.}}
|{{interlinear
  |kal-kal mẽ {hī ho jāyegā.}
  |tomorrow-tomorrow.LOC happen.3.FUT.PRF {}
  |It'll be done <u>before tomorrow ends</u>.}}
|-
|{{interlinear
  |soye-soye {mar gaye.}
  |sleep-sleep.PTCP.PRF die.PRF.MASC.PL
  |he died <u>while sleeping</u> / he died <u>in his sleep</u>.}}
|{{interlinear
  |cillāyī {zor-zor se.}
  |shouted.PRF.SG.FEM loud-loud.INST
  |she shouted <u>loudly</u>. (emphasis on the loudness)}}
|}

====Armenian====

In [[Armenian language|Armenian]], reduplication follows the same classification as in Turkish (see below), namely emphatic reduplication, echo reduplication,<ref>Inkelas, Sharon and Downing, Laura (2015). What is Reduplication? Typology and Analysis Part 1/2: The Typology of Reduplication. Language and Linguistics Compass 9/12 (2015), p. 510</ref> and doubling. Many appear as lexical entries in Armenian lexicographical sources.
# Emphatic reduplication, one of two interpolated consonants (փ, ս), as in ''կարմիր'' (red), which becomes ''կասկարմիր'' (very red).<ref>Malxaseancʿ, Stepʿan (1944–1945), Hayerēn bacʿatrakan baṙaran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 2, p. 396 Yerevan: State Publishing House</ref>
# Echo Reduplication, as in ''սեղան-մեղան'' (table schmable).<ref>Malxaseancʿ, Stepʿan (1944–1945), Hayerēn bacʿatrakan baṙaran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 3, p. 198, Yerevan: State Publishing House</ref>
# Doubling, as in ''քիչ-քիչ'' (little [by] little) <ref>Malxaseancʿ, Stepʿan (1944–1945), Hayerēn bacʿatrakan baṙaran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 4, p. 575, Yerevan: State Publishing House</ref>

===Turkic===

====Turkish====
In [[Turkish language|Turkish]], there are three kinds of reduplication.<ref>Göksel & Kerslake (2005)</ref>

Emphatic reduplication, also called [[Turkish grammar#Intensification|intensification]]: A word can be reduplicated partially, such that an emphatic stem is created to be attached to the adjective. This is done by taking the first syllable of the adjective, dropping the syllable-final phoneme, and adding one of four interpolated consonants (p, s, m, r). For example, ''kırmızı'' (red) becomes ''kıpkırmızı'' (very red); ''mavi'' (blue) becomes ''masmavi'' (very blue); ''yeşil'' (green) becomes ''yemyeşil'' (very green), and ''temiz'' (clean) becomes ''tertemiz'' ("spotless"). The added consonant is unpredictable, grammatically speaking; phonological studies, such as Wedel (1999), shed light on the subject.<ref>Wedel (1999)</ref>

Echo reduplication: similar to [[echo word]] in other languages, a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not being ''m'', and possibly missing) with ''m''. The meaning of the original word is broadened. For example, ''tabak'' means "plate(s)", and ''tabak mabak'' then means "plates, dishes and such". This can be applied to all kinds of words, as in ''yeşil meşil'' meaning "green, greenish, whatever". Although not used in formal written Turkish, it is a standard accepted construction.

Doubling: A word can be reduplicated totally, turning it into an adverb with a related meaning. For example, ''zaman zaman'' (time time) meaning "time to time" or "occasionally"; ''uzun uzun'' (long long) meaning "at length." This type is used also in formal Turkish, especially in literature. There are a lot of reduplications in this category which do not, if used as one word, have a place in the Turkish language's vocabulary but is used solely in this way. These words are called mimetic in linguistics. An example is 'şırıl şırıl' (used for the sound of a waterfall). They try to give sounds to not only audible but also non-audible phenomena. For example, 'mışıl mışıl' is used for sleeping soundly.

===Dravidian===
Reduplication is also used in [[Dravidian languages]] like [[Telugu language|Telugu]] for the same purpose.{{sfn|Emeneau|1971}}

* phrasal:
{{fs interlinear|indent=3
| పిల్లవాడు నడుస్తూ నడుస్తూ పడి పోయాడు |c1= {{sfn|Abbi|1992|p=37}}
| pillavāḍu naḍustū naḍustū paḍi pōyāḍu
| child walking walking fall went
| 'The child fell down while walking.' [[Telugu language|Telugu]]}}

===Bantu===
Reduplication is a common phenomenon in [[Bantu languages]] and is usually used to form a [[frequentive]] verb or for emphasis.{{sfn|Lodhi|2002}}{{sfn|Downing|2001}}
* [[Swahili language|Swahili]] ''piga'' 'to strike'; ''pigapiga'' 'to strike repeatedly'
* [[Luganda|Ganda]] ''okukuba'' (''oku-kuba'') 'to strike'; ''okukubaakuba'' (''oku-kuba-kuba'') 'to strike repeatedly, to batter'
* [[Chewa language|Chewa]] ''tambalalá'' 'to stretch one's legs'; ''tambalalá-tambalalá'' to stretch one's legs repeatedly'
Popular names that have reduplication include
* [[Bafana Bafana]]
* [[Chipolopolo]]
* [[Eric Djemba-Djemba]]
* [[Lomana LuaLua]]
* [[Ngorongoro]]

===Semitic===
[[Semitic languages]] frequently reduplicate consonants, though often not the vowels that appear next to the consonants in some verb form.{{sfn|Butts|2011}} This can take the shape of reduplicating the antepenultimate consonant (usually the second of three),{{clarify|reason=second of three is not antepenultimate|date=September 2015}} the last of two consonants, or the last two consonants.{{sfn|Unseth|2003}}

====Hebrew====
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], reduplication is used in nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs for various reasons:

* For emphasis: in {{Script/Hebrew|לאט לאט}} ''le'at le'at'', where the adverb {{Script/Hebrew|לאט}} "slowly" is duplicated to mean "very slowly". In the slangism {{Script/Hebrew|גבר גבר}} ''gever gever'', the noun {{Script/Hebrew|גבר}} "man" is duplicated to mean a "very manly man".
* To mean "one by one":
** {{Script/Hebrew|יום יום}} ''yom yom'' is based on {{Script/Hebrew|יום}} "day", and means "every day, day by day".
**  {{Script/Hebrew|פרה פרה}} ''para para'' is based on {{Script/Hebrew|פרה}} "cow", and literally means "cow by cow", referring to "one thing at a time". This is possibly a folk etymology, and a derivation from Spanish "para" meaning "stop" is possible.
* To create a diminutive: by reduplicating the last two consonants (bi-consonantal reduplication):
** {{Script/Hebrew|כלב}} ''kelev'' "dog"
*** {{Script/Hebrew|כלבלב}} ''klavlav'' "puppy"
** {{Script/Hebrew|חתול}} ''khatul'' "cat"
*** {{Script/Hebrew|חתלתול}} ''khataltul'' "kitten"
** {{Script/Hebrew|לבן}} ''lavan'' "white"
*** {{Script/Hebrew|לבנבן}} ''levanban'' "whitish"
** {{Script/Hebrew|קטן}} ''katan'' "small"
*** {{Script/Hebrew|קטנטן}} ''ktantan'' "tiny"
* To create secondary derivative verbs: by reduplicating the root or part of it:
** ''dal'' ({{Script/Hebrew|דל}}) "poor" > ''dilel'' ({{Script/Hebrew|דלל}}) "to dilute", and also ''dildel'' ({{Script/Hebrew|דלדל}}) "to impoverish, weaken".
** ''nad'' ({{Script/Hebrew|נד}}) "to move, nod" > ''nadad'' ({{Script/Hebrew|נדד}}) "to wander" but also ''nidned'' ({{Script/Hebrew|נדנד}}) "to swing" and - due to [[phono-semantic matching]] of the [[Yiddish]]  lexical item נודיען nídyen / núdzhen "to bore, bother" - also "to bother, pest, nag, annoy".<ref name="language">[[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann, Ghil'ad]] (2003), [[Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew]]. [[Palgrave Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|9781403917232}} / {{ISBN|9781403938695}} [http://www.palgrave.com/br/book/9781403917232]</ref>{{rp|206}}
** ''tzakhak'' ({{Script/Hebrew|צחק}}) "to laugh" > ''tzikhkek'' ({{Script/Hebrew|צחקק}}) "to chuckle".
* For onomatopoeia:
** שקשק ''shikshék'' "to make noise, rustle".<ref name="language"/>{{rp|207}}
** רשרש ''rishrésh'' "to make noise, rustle".<ref name="language"/>{{rp|208}}

There are also numerous examples in the Torah, for example "אם שמוע תשמעו" which means "if you listen diligently".

====Amharic====
In [[Amharic language|Amharic]], verb roots can be reduplicated three different ways. These can result in verbs, nouns, or adjectives (which are often derived from verbs).

From the root ''sbr'' 'break', antepenultimate reduplication produces ''täsäbabbärä'' 'it was shattered'{{sfn|Leslau|1995|p=1029}} and biconsonantal reduplication produces ''täsbäräbbärä'' 'it was shattered repeatedly' and ''səbərbari'' 'a shard, a shattered piece'.{{sfn|Unseth|2002}}

From the root ''kHb'' 'pile stones into a wall', since the second radical is not fully specified, what some call "hollow", the antepenultimate reduplication process reduplicates the ''k'' inserting the vowel ''a'' along with the consonant as a place holder for the hollow consonant, which is by some criteria antepenultimate, and produces ''akakabä'' 'pile stones repeatedly'.{{sfn|Leslau|1995|p=1035}}{{sfn|Tak|2016}}

===Japanese===
A small number of native [[Japanese language|Japanese]] nouns have [[collective number|collective]] forms produced by reduplication (possibly with [[rendaku]]), such as 人々 ''hitobito'' "people" (''h'' → ''b'' is rendaku) – these are written with the [[iteration mark]] "々" to indicate duplication.  This formation is not [[productivity (linguistics)|productive]] and is limited to a small set of nouns.  Similarly to Standard Chinese, the meaning is not that of a true [[plural]], but collectives that refer to a large, given set of the same object; for example, the formal English equivalent of 人々 would be "people" (collective), rather than "persons" (plural individuals).

Japanese also contains a large number of [[Japanese sound symbolism|mimetic words]] formed by reduplication of a syllable.  These words include not only [[onomatopoeia]], but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states, such as きらきら ''kirakira'' (sparkling or shining). By one count, approximately 43% of Japanese mimetic words are formed by full reduplication,{{sfn|Tamamura|1979}}{{sfn|Tamamura|1989}} and many others are formed by partial reduplication, as in がささ〜 ''ga-sa-sa-'' (rustling){{sfn|Nasu|2003}}&nbsp;– compare English "''a''-ha-ha-ha".

===Austronesian===
[[Austronesian languages]] are known for their extensive use of reduplication in both nouns and verbs.{{sfn|Lande|2003}}

====Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian)====
In the Malay language, reduplication is a semi-productive process. It is used for expression of various grammatical functions (such as verbal aspect) and it is part in a number of complex morphological models. Simple reduplication of nouns and pronouns can express at least three meanings:

#Diversity or non-exhaustive plurality:
##''Burung-burung itu juga diekspor ke luar negeri'' = "All those birds are also exported out of the country".
#Conceptual similarity:
##''langit-langit'' = "ceiling; palate; etc." (''langit'' = "sky")
##''jari-jari'' = "spoke; bar; radius; etc." (''jari'' = "finger" etc.)
#Pragmatic accentuation:
##''Saya bukan anak-anak lagi!'' "I am not a child anymore!" (''anak'' = "child")

Reduplication of an adjective can express different things:
*Adverbialisation: ''Jangan bicara keras-keras!'' = "Don't speak loudly!" (''keras'' = hard)
*Plurality of the corresponding noun: ''Rumah di sini besar-besar'' = "The houses here are big" (''besar'' = "big").

Reduplication of a verb can express various things:
*Simple reduplication:
**Pragmatic accentuation: ''Kenapa orang tidak datang-datang?'' = "Why aren't people coming?"
*Reduplication with ''me-'' prefixation, depending on the position of the prefix ''me-'':
**Repetition or continuation of the action: ''Orang itu memukul-mukul anaknya'': "That man continuously beat his child";
**Reciprocity: ''Kedua-dua orang itu pukul-memukul'' = "Those two men would beat each other".
Notice that in the first case, the nasalisation of the initial consonant (whereby /p/ becomes /m/) is repeated, while in the second case, it only applies in the repeated word.

====Māori====
The [[Māori language]] ([[New Zealand]]) uses reduplication in a number of ways.{{sfn|Biggs|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7PZPA_JjCrQC&pg=PA137 137]}}

Reduplication can convey a simple plural meaning, for instance ''wahine'' "woman", ''waahine'' "women", ''tangata'' "person", ''taangata'' "people". Biggs calls this "infixed reduplication". It occurs in a small subset of "people" words in most Polynesian languages.

Reduplication can convey emphasis or repetition, for example ''mate'' "die", ''matemate'' "die in numbers"; and de-emphasis, for example ''wera'' "hot" and ''werawera'' "warm".

Reduplication can also extend the meaning of a word; for instance ''paki'' "pat" becomes ''papaki'' "slap or clap once" and ''pakipaki'' "applaud"; ''kimo'' "blink" becomes ''kikimo'' "close eyes firmly". Nouns can also be formed this way – a good example are names of native New Zealand plants given in memory of tropical plants known by early arriving Polynesian settlers that they approximately resemble: ''[[kohekohe]]'' is named because its stems resemble the ''[[Schizostachyum glaucifolium|kohe]]'' bamboo (hence "bamboo-ish") in tropical islands,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.temarareo.org/TMR-Kohekohe.html|title=Proto-Polynesian Etymologies: Kohe, Kohekohe|website=Te Māra Reo|date=2023|publisher=Benson Family Trust}}</ref> same for several ferns known as ''piupiu'' (''[[Parablechnum]]'' and others in their family) named after their fronds' shape resembling those of the ''piu'' or ''[[Pritchardia pacifica]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Proto-Polynesian Etymologies: Piu |url=https://www.temarareo.org/PPN-Piu.html |work=ibid.}}</ref>

==== Mortlockese ====
The [[Mortlockese language]] is a Micronesian language spoken primarily on the [[Mortlock Islands (disambiguation)|Mortlock Islands]]. In the Mortlockese language, reduplication is used to show a habitual or imperfective aspect. For example, /jææjæ/ means "to use something" while the word /jæjjææjæ/ means "to use something habitually or repeatedly".{{sfn|Odango|2015}} Reduplication is also used in the Mortlockese Language to show extremity or extreme measures. One example of this can be seen in /ŋiimw alɛɛtɛj/ which means "hate him, her, or it". To mean "really hate him, her, or it," the phrase changes to /ŋii~mw al~mw alɛɛtɛj/.{{sfn|Odango|2015}}

====Pingelapese====
[[Pingelapese language|Pingelapese]] is a Micronesian language spoken on the Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. Pingelapese utilizes both duplication and triplication of a verb or part of a verb to express that something is happening for certain duration of time. No reduplication means that something happens. A reduplicated verb means that something IS happening, and a triplication means that something is STILL happening.  For example, ''saeng'' means 'to cry' in Pingelapese. When reduplicated and triplicated, the duration of this verb is changed:
* ''saeng'' – cries
* ''saeng-saeng'' – is crying
* ''saeng-saeng-saeng'' – is still crying

Few languages employ triplication in their language. In Micronesia, Pingelapese is one of only two languages that uses triplication, the other being Mokilese. Reduplication and triplication are not to be confused with tense. In order to make a phrase past, present, or future tense, a temporal phrase must be used.{{sfn|Hattori|2012|pp=34–35}}

==== Rapa ====
[[Rapa language|Rapa]] is the French Polynesian language of the island of [[Rapa Iti]].{{sfn|Walworth|2015}} In terms of reduplication, the indigenous language known as Old Rapa uses reduplication consistent to other Polynesian languages. Reduplication of Old Rapa occurs in four ways: full, rightward, leftward, and medial. Full and rightward are generally more frequently used as opposed to the leftward and medial. Leftward and medial only occur as CV reduplication and partial leftward and medial usually denote emphasis.{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}

Example of reduplication forms:{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}

{| class="wikitable"
!
!Base form
!Reduplicated form
|-
!Full reduplication
|
* kini 'pinch'
* kati 'bite'
|
* kini'''kini''' 'pinch skin'
* kati'''kati''' 'nibble'
|-
!Rightward reduplication
|
* māringi 'pour'
* taka'uri 'go backward'
* pātī 'bounce'
* ngaru 'wave'
|
* māringi'''ringi''' 'pour continuously'
* taka'uri'''<nowiki/>'uri''' 'roll back and forth'
* pātī'''tī''' 'splash (of raindrops)'
* ngaru'''ru''' 'sea sick'
|-
!Leftward reduplication
|
* komo 'sleep'
* kume 'drag'
|
* '''ko'''komo 'deep sleep'
* '''ku'''kume 'large, flat leaf seaweed'
|-
!Medial reduplication
|
* maitaki 'good; well'
|
* mai'''ta'''taki 'excellent; very well'
|}

For the Rapa Language the implementation of reduplication has specific implications. The most evident of these are known as iterative, intensification, specification, diminutive, metaphorical, nominalizing, and adjectival.{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}

Iterative:

* naku 'come, go' → nakunaku 'pass by frequently'
* ipuni 'hide' → ipunipuni 'hide and seek'

Intensification:

* mare 'cough' → maremare 'cough forcefully'
* roa 'much' → roroa 'very much'
* maki 'sick' → makimaki 'really sick'

Specification:

* kini 'to pinch' → kinikini 'pinch skin'

Diminutive:

* paki 'slap, strike' → pakipaki 'clap'
* kati 'bite' → katikati 'nibble'

Metaphorical (typically comparing an animal action with a human action):{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}

* kapa 'mime with hands' → kapakapa 'flap wings (a bird)'
* mākuru 'detach oneself' → mākurukuru 'shed or molt'
* taŋi 'Yell' → taŋitaŋi 'chirp (a bird)'

Nominalizing:

* para 'finished' → parapara 'leftovers'
* Panga'a 'divide' → panaga'anga'a 'a break, a divide'

Adjectival:

* repo 'dirt, earth' → reporepo 'dirty'
* pake 'sun' → pakepake 'shining, bright'

====Tagalog====
[[Philippine languages]] are characterized as having the most productive use of reduplication, especially in [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (the basis of the [[Filipino language]]). Reduplication in Tagalog is complex. It can be roughly divided into six types:<ref name="Lopez">{{cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=Cecilio |title=Reduplication in Tagalog |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |date=1950 |volume=Deel 106 |issue=2de Afl |pages=151–311 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90002477 |jstor=27859677 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Blake">{{cite journal |last1=Blake |first1=Frank R. |title=Reduplication in Tagalog |journal=The American Journal of Philology |date=1917 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=425–431 |doi=10.2307/288967|jstor=288967 }}</ref><ref name="Wan">{{cite web |last1=Wan |first1=Jin |title=Reduplication in Tagalog verbs |url=https://soologua.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/reduplication-in-tagalog-verbs.pdf |access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref>
#Monosyllabic; e.g. ''olol'' ("mad")
#Reduplication of the final syllable; e.g. ''himaymay'' ("separate meat from bones"), from ''himay'' (same meaning)
#Reduplication of the final syllable of a disyllabic word, where the added syllable is created from the first consonant of the first syllable and the last consonant of the second syllable; e.g. ''kaliskis'' ("[fish] scale"), from ''kalis'' ("to scrape")
#Reduplication of the initial syllable of the root; e.g. ''susulat'' ("will write"), from ''sulat'' ("to write")
#Full reduplication; e.g. ''araw-araw'' ("every day"), from ''araw'' ("day" or "sun")
#Combined partial and full reduplication; e.g. ''babalibaligtad'' ("turning around continually", "tumbling"), from ''baligtad'' ("reverse")

They can further be divided into "non-significant" (where its significance is not apparent) and "significant" reduplication. 1, 2, and 3 are always non-significant; while 5 and 6 are always significant. 4 can be non-significant when used for nouns (e.g. ''lalaki'', "man").<ref name="Lopez"/><ref name="Blake"/><ref name="Wan"/>

Full or partial reduplication among nouns and pronouns can indicate emphasis, intensity, plurality, or causation; as well as a diminutive, superlative, iterative, restrictive, or distributive force.<ref name="Lopez"/><ref name="Blake"/><ref name="Wan"/>

Adjectives and adverbs employ morphological reduplication for many different reasons such as number agreement when the adjective modifies a plural noun, intensification of the adjective or adverb, and sometimes because the prefix forces the adjective to have a reduplicated stem".{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}}

Number agreement for adjectives is entirely optional in Tagalog (e.g., a plural noun does not have to have a plural article marking it):{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}}
*"Ang magandang puno" "the beautiful tree".
*"Ang ma''ga''gandang puno" "the beautiful tree''s''".

The entire adjective is repeated for intensification of adjectives or adverbs:
*''Maganda''ng maganda ang kabayo "the horse is ''very'' pretty"

In verbs, reduplication of the root, prefix or infix is employed to convey different [[grammatical aspect]]s. In "Mag- verbs" reduplication of the root after the prefix "mag-" or "nag-" changes the verb from the infinitive form, or perfective aspect, respectively, to the contemplated or imperfective aspect.{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}} Thus:
*magluto inf/actor trigger-cook "to cook" or "cook!" ([[Imperative mood|imperative]])
*nagluto actor trigger-cook "cooked"
*nagluluto actor trigger-reduplication-cook "cook" (as in "I cook all the time) or "is/was cooking"
*magluluto inf/actor trigger-rdplc-cook (contemplated) "will cook"

For [[ergative verb]]s (frequently referred to as "object focus" verbs) reduplication of part the infix and the stem occur:
*lutuin cook-inf/object trigger-cook "to cook"
*niluto object trigger infix-cook (perf-cook) "cooked"
*niluluto object trigger infix-reduplication-cook "cook"/"is/was cooking"
*lulutuin rdp-cook-object trigger "will cook".{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}}

The complete superlative prefix pagka- demands reduplication of the first syllable of the adjective's stem:
*"Ang pagka''ga''gandang puno" "The ''most'' beautiful tree (''and there are none more beautiful anywhere'')"

====Wuvulu-Aua====
Reduplication is not a productive noun derivation process in [[Wuvulu-Aua language|Wuvulu-Aua]] as it is in other Austronesian languages. Some nouns exhibit reduplication, though they are considered to be fossilized.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=47}}

Verb roots can undergo whole or partial reduplication to mark aspect. Actions that are continuous are indicated by a reduplicated initial syllable. A whole reduplication can also be used to indicate imperfective aspect.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=100}}
* ''roni'' "to hurry"
* ''roroni'' "hurrying"
* ''rawani'' "good"
* ''rarawani'' "good" (continuous)
* ''ware'' "talk"
* ''wareware'' "talked" (durative)

The onomatopoeia in Wuvulu language also uses reduplication to describe the sound. These onomatopoeic words can be used as alienable nouns.
* "baʔa" or "baʔabaʔa" is a word for the sound of knocking.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=46}}

===Austroasiatic===
====Vietnamese====
{{main|Vietnamese morphology#Reduplication}}

{{expand section|date=July 2022}}

=== Sino-Tibetan ===

==== Burmese ====
As in many [[Tibeto-Burman languages]], in [[Burmese language|Burmese]], reduplication is used in verbs and adjectives to form adverbs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Jheng |first=Wei-Cherng Sam |date=2017 |title=Adjacency in Burmese Reduplication: An Optimality Theoretical Analysis |url=http://homepage.ling.nthu.edu.tw/USTWPL/doc/Volume%209/9-2.%20Adjacency%20in%20Burmese%20Reduplication%20An%20Optimality%20Theoretical%20Analysis%20%E9%84%AD%E5%81%89%E6%88%90%20(2nd).pdf |journal=UST Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=9}}</ref> Many Burmese words, especially adjectives such as {{lang|my|လှပ}} ('beautiful' {{IPA|[l̥a̰pa̰]}}), which consist of two syllables (when reduplicated, each syllable is reduplicated separately), when reduplicated ({{lang|my|လှပ}} → {{lang|my|လှလှပပ}} 'beautifully' {{IPA|[l̥a̰l̥a̰ pa̰pa̰]}}) become [[adverb]]s.<ref name=":0" /> This is also true of many Burmese verbs, which become adverbs when reduplicated.<ref name=":0" />

Some nouns are also reduplicated to indicate plurality. For instance, {{lang|my|ပြည်}}, means "country," but when reduplicated to {{lang|my|အပြည်ပြည်}}, it means "many countries" (as in {{lang|my|အပြည်ပြည်ဆိုင်ရာ}}, "international"). Another example is {{lang|my|အမျိုး}}, which means "kinds," but the reduplicated form {{lang|my|အမျိုးမျိုး}} means "multiple kinds."

A few measure words can also be reduplicated to indicate "one or the other":

* {{lang|my|ယောက်}} (measure word for people) → {{lang|my|တစ်ယောက်ယောက်}} (someone)
* {{lang|my|ခု}} (measure word for things) → {{lang|my|တစ်ခုခု}} (something)

====Chinese====
Reduplication is sometimes employed in verbs and adjectives to enhance the effect of them.

* {{lang|zh|帮帮忙}} {{Transliteration|zh|bāng bāng máng}} ({{gloss|Please help!}}) is a reduplicated form of {{lang|zh|帮忙}} {{Transliteration|zh|bāngmáng}} ({{gloss|to help}})
* {{lang|zh|胖胖的}} {{Transliteration|zh|pàng pàng de}} ({{gloss|quite fat}}) from {{lang|zh|胖}} {{Transliteration|zh|pàng}} ({{gloss|fat}})

Similar to other Sino-Tibetan languages, adjectives form adverbs by reduplication.

* {{lang|zh|漂漂亮亮}} {{Transliteration|zh|piào piào liàng liàng}} ({{gloss|prettily}}) is a reduplicated form of {{lang|zh|漂亮}} {{Transliteration|zh|piàoliàng}} ({{gloss|pretty}})

Other than verbs and adjectives, some nouns can be reduplicated to express plurality or a collection in Chinese.

* {{lang|zh|人人}} {{Transliteration|zh|rén rén}} ({{gloss|everyone}}) is derived from {{lang|zh|人}} {{Transliteration|zh|rén}} ({{gloss|person}}).
* {{lang|zh|天天}} {{Transliteration|zh|tiān tiān}} ({{gloss|every day}}) is derived from {{lang|zh|天}} {{Transliteration|zh|tiān}} ({{gloss|day}}).

===Old Proto-Basque===
One of the puzzles of Basque is the large number of words that begin with vowels in which the initial and second vowels are the same. Joseba Lakarra proposes that in Pre-Proto-Basque there was extensive reduplication<ref>{{in lang|eu}} {{cite journal|last1=Lakarra|first1=Joseba|title=Aitzineuskara berreraikiaz: zergatik ezkerra?|journal=Euskera|date=2009|issue=54, 1|page=52|url=http://www.euskaltzaindia.eus/dok/euskera/74555.pdf|access-date=22 April 2016}}</ref> and that later, certain initial consonants were deleted, leaving the VCV pattern of Proto-Basque:

{|align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"
!Pre-Proto-Basque
!Proto-Basque
![[Basque language|Modern Basque]]
![[English language|English]]
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*dar'' → ''*da-dar''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*adaR''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|adar}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|[[horn (anatomy)]]
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*dats'' → ''*da-dats''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*adats''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|adats}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|long [[hair]]
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*der'' → ''*de-der''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*edeR''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|eder}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|beautiful
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*dol'' → ''*do-dol''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*odoL''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|odol}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|[[blood]]
|---
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*gor'' → ''*go-gor''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*gogoR''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|gogor}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|hard
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*nal'' → ''*na-nal''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*anaL''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|ahal}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|can, to be able
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*nan'' → ''*na-nan''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*anan-tz''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|ahantz}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|to forget
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*nin'' → ''*ni-nin''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*inin-tz''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|ihintz}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|[[dew]]
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*nol'' → ''*no-nol''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*onoL''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|ohol}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|[[lumber|board]]
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*nur'' → ''*nu-nur''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*unuR''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|hur}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|[[hazelnut]]
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*zal'' → ''*za-zal''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*azal''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|azal}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|[[Bark (botany)|bark]]
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*zen'' → ''*ze-zen''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*zezen''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|zezen}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|[[bull]]
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*ten'' → ''*te-ten''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*eten''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|eten}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|{{wikt-lang|en|break}}
|-----
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*ran'' → ''*ra-ran''
|bgcolor=whitesmoke|''*aran''
|bgcolor=aliceblue|{{lang|eu|aran}}
|bgcolor=honeydew|[[plum]]
|}