Editing Public speaking (section)

== Theorists ==
=== Aristotle's "Rhetoric" ===
{{Main|Rhetoric (Aristotle)}}
[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|[[Aristotle]]]]

In one of his most famed writings, "[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]", written in 350 BCE, [[Aristotle]] described mastering the art of public speaking. In this and other works by Aristotle, rhetoric is the act of publicly persuading an audience.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Rapp|first=Christof|title=Aristotle's Rhetoric |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2010/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/|access-date=2021-08-06|website=plato.stanford.edu |language=en}}</ref> Rhetoric is similar to [[Dialectic|dialect]]: he defines both as being acts of persuasion. However, dialect is the act of persuading someone in private, whereas rhetoric is about persuading people in a public setting.<ref name=":14" /> Aristotle defines someone who practices rhetoric or a "rhetorician" as an individual who can comprehend persuasion and how it is applied.<ref name=":14" />

Aristotle divides rhetoric into three elements: (i) the speaker; (ii) the topic or point of the speech; and (iii) the audience.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=W. Rhys |title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} Rhetoric by Aristotle. |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/rhetoric.1.i.html. |url-status= |access-date=1 July 2021 |website=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]}}</ref> Aristotle also classifies oration into three types: (i) political, used to convince people to take or not take action; (ii) forensic, usually used in law related to accusing or defending someone; and (iii) ceremonial, which recognizes someone positively or negatively.<ref name=":15" />

Aristotle breaks down the political category into five focuses or themes: "ways and means, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports, and legislation."<ref name=":15" /> These focuses are broken down into detail so that the speaker can effectively influence an audience to agree and support the speaker's ideas.<ref name=":15" />

* The focus of "ways and means" deals with economic aspects of how the country is spending money.<ref name=":15" /> 
* "Peace and War" focuses on what the country has to offer in terms of military power, how war has been conducted, how war has affected the country in the past, and how other countries have conducted war.<ref name=":15" /> 
* "National defense" deals with considering a country's position and strength in the event of an invasion. Fortifying structures and points with a strategic advantage should all be considered.<ref name=":15" /> 
* "Food supply" is concerned with the ability to support a country in regards to food, importing and exporting food, and carefully making decisions to arrange agreements with other countries.<ref name=":15" /> 
* "Legislation" is the most important to Aristotle. The legislation of a country is the most crucial aspect because everything is affected by the policies and laws set by the people in power.<ref name=":15" />

In Aristotle's "Rhetoric" writing, he mentions three strategies someone can use to try to persuade an audience:<ref name=":14" /> Establishing the character of a speaker ([[Ethos]]), influencing the emotional element of the audience ([[Pathos]]), and focusing on the argument specifically ([[Logos]]).<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Higgins|first1=Colin|last2=Walker|first2=Robyn|date=September 2012|title=Ethos, logos, pathos: Strategies of persuasion in social/environmental reports |journal=Accounting Forum|language=en|volume=36|issue=3|pages=194–208 |doi=10.1016/j.accfor.2012.02.003|s2cid=144894570|issn=0155-9982}}</ref> Aristotle believes establishing the character of a speaker is effective in persuasion because the audience will believe what the speaker is saying to be true if the speaker is credible and trustworthy.<ref name=":14" /> With the audience's emotional state, Aristotle believes that individuals do not make the same decisions when in different moods.<ref name=":14" /> Because of this, one needs to try to influence the audience by being in control of one's emotions, making persuasion effective.<ref name=":14" /> The argument itself can affect the attempt to persuade by making the argument of the case so clear and valid that the audience will understand and believe that the speaker's point is real.<ref name=":14" />

In the last part of "Rhetoric", Aristotle mentions that the most critical piece of persuasion is to know in detail what makes up government and to attack what makes it unique: "customs, institutions, and interest".<ref name=":15" /> Aristotle also states that everyone is persuaded by considering people's interests and how the society in which they live influences their interests.<ref name=":15" />

=== Cicero's Five Canons of Rhetoric ===
In his writing ''[[De Inventione]]'', Cicero explained the five canons or tenets of rhetoric. The five canons apply to rhetoric and public speaking. The five canons are invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-10-15 |title=The Five Canons of Rhetoric |url=https://walton.uark.edu/business-communication-lab/resources/downloads/The_Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric.pdf |access-date=2024-10-15 |website=University of Arkansas Sam M. Walton College of Business}}</ref>

Invention is the process of coming up with what to say to persuade the audience of the key points. Individuals will need to understand their topic, brainstorm their ideas, and discover effective research strategies that they can use to get their point across. Arrangement is the process of structuring ideas together. Cicero and the Roman rhetorician Quintilian identified the structure of a text as Exordium, Narrative, Partition, Confirmation, Refutation, and Peroration (or conclusion). In today's text, the structure has been reduced to introduction, body, and conclusion. Style is the process of choosing language and constructing your presentation to create an emotional response from the audience. Individuals can achieve this by using language and rhetoric devices like analogy, allusion and alliteration.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=How You Use the 5 Canons of Classical Rhetoric |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/the-5-canons-of-classical-rhetoric-1691771 |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref>

Memory is remembering enough so that individuals are able to fully and fluently present without reading off a paper or note cards. This includes figures of speech, which can be used to improve memory. Roman rhetoricians made a distinction between natural memory (an innate ability) and artificial memory (particular techniques that enhanced natural abilities).<ref name=":7" />  Delivery is the last of the five canons of rhetoric. It Involves using all the tools available to effectively communicate. Methods and tools like tone of voice, change of pace, pauses, volume, body language, positioning and props are all effective in delivering the point'''.''' <ref name=":0" />