Editing Pope Julius II (section)

==A Renaissance pope==
[[File:Pier maria serbaldi da pescia, medaglia di giulio II, recto (oro).JPG|thumb|left|Medal in gold, by Pier Maria Serbaldi da Pescia]]
Giuliano della Rovere took the name Julius, only used by a single fourth-century predecessor, [[Pope Julius I|Julius I]], and was pope for nine years, from 1503 to 1513. From the beginning, Julius II set out to defeat the various powers that challenged his temporal authority; in a series of complicated stratagems, he first succeeded in rendering it impossible for the [[House of Borgia|Borgias]] to retain their power over the [[Papal States]]. Indeed, on the day of his election, he issued a ''[[damnatio memoriae]]'', declaring:{{blockquote|
I will not live in the same rooms as the Borgias lived. He [Alexander VI] desecrated the Holy Church as none before. He usurped the papal power by the devil's aid, and I forbid under the pain of excommunication anyone to speak or think of Borgia again. His name and memory must be forgotten. It must be crossed out of every document and memorial. His reign must be obliterated. All paintings made of the Borgias or for them must be covered over with black crepe. All the tombs of the Borgias must be opened and their bodies sent back to where they belong – to Spain.<ref name="NC2">{{cite book | title=Sex Lives of the Popes | publisher=Prion |date=1996 | first=Nigel | last=Cawthorne | isbn=978-1853755460 | page=[https://archive.org/details/sexlivesofpopesi0000cawt/page/219 219] | url=https://archive.org/details/sexlivesofpopesi0000cawt/page/219 }}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}} Others indicate that his decision was taken on 26 November 1507, not in 1503.<ref>{{harvnb|Pastor|1902|loc=VI, pp. 217–218}}, quoting [[Paris de Grassis]], the papal Master of Ceremonies.<br>{{harvnb|Döllinger|1882|p=383}}.</ref> The [[Borgia Apartments]] were turned to other uses. The ''Sala de Papi'' was redecorated by two pupils of Raphael by order of [[Pope Leo X]].{{sfn|Pastor|1902|loc=VI, p. 173}} The rooms were used to accommodate Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] on his visit to the Vatican after the [[Sack of Rome (1527)]], and subsequently, they became the residence of the [[Cardinal-nephew]] and then the [[Cardinal Secretary of State]].<ref>In the 17th and 18th centuries they were used for accommodations during papal conclaves. Paul Maria Baumgarten, in: {{cite book|title=The Catholic Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8wwjAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA284|volume=Fifteen |date=1913 |publisher=Encyclopedia Press|location=New York|page=284}}</ref>

Julius used his influence to reconcile two powerful Roman families, the [[Orsini family|Orsini]] and [[Colonna family|Colonna]]. Decrees were made in the interests of the Roman nobility, in whose shoes the new pope now stepped. Being thus secure in Rome and the surrounding country, he set himself the task to expel the [[Republic of Venice]] from [[Faenza]], [[Rimini]], and the other towns and fortresses of Italy which it occupied after the death of Pope Alexander.{{r|Ott1910}}<ref name=Shaw>{{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Christine |title=Julius II: The Warrior Pope |publisher=Oxford: Blackwell Publishers |date=1993 |isbn=978-0631167389 |pages=127–132, 135–139, 228–234 }}</ref> In 1504, finding it impossible to succeed with the [[Doge of Venice]] by remonstrance, he brought about a union of the conflicting interests of [[Kingdom of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and sacrificed temporarily to some extent the independence of Italy to conclude with them an offensive and defensive alliance against Venice.<ref name=Norwich1989>{{cite book |first=John Julius |last=Norwich |date=1989 |title=A History of Venice |location=New York  |publisher=Vintage Books |pages=392, 423–424}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Mallett | first1 = Michael | first2 = Christine | last2 = Shaw | title = The Italian Wars, 1494–1559: War, State and Society in Early Modern Europe | location =Harlow, England | publisher = Pearson Education Limited |date=2012 | isbn=978-0582057586 | page= 85 }}</ref> The combination was, however, at first little more than nominal, and was not immediately effective in compelling the Venetians to deliver up more than a few unimportant places in the [[Romagna]].{{r|Ott1910}} With a campaign in 1506, he personally led an army to [[Perugia]] and [[Bologna]], freeing the two papal cities from their despots, [[Gian Paolo Baglioni]] and [[Giovanni II Bentivoglio]].{{r|Ott1910}}

In December 1503, Julius issued a [[Dispensation (Catholic canon law)|dispensation]] allowing the future [[Henry VIII of England]] to marry [[Catherine of Aragon]]; Catherine had previously been briefly married to Henry's older brother [[Arthur Tudor|Prince Arthur]], who had died, but Henry later argued that she had remained a virgin for the five months of the marriage. Some twenty years later, when Henry was attempting to wed [[Anne Boleyn]] (since his son by Catherine of Aragon survived only a few days, and two of her sons were stillborn, and therefore he had no male heir), he sought to have his marriage annulled, claiming that the dispensation of Pope Julius should never have been issued. The retraction of the dispensation was refused by [[Pope Clement VII]].<ref>J.J. Scarisbrick, ''Henry VIII'' (Berkeley-Los Angeles: University of California Press 1968), pp. 151–155, 163–197.</ref>

[[File:History of the great reformation in Europe in the times of Luther and Calvin.. (1870) (14785634573).jpg|thumb|Jetzer being tricked. Jetzer was a Dominican friar in Bern, and some of his brothers tricked him into thinking he was receiving a revelation from the Virgin Mary. Eventually he figured it out. In punishment over this scandal, four Dominicans were burned at the stake under the orders of Pope Julius II with an audience of 30,000 people on 1 May 1509.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=h_BMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA217 History of the Great Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in Germany]'', Jean Henri Merle d'Aubigné, Philadelphia: Porter & Coates, 1870</ref>]]

The Bull entitled ''[[Ea quae pro bono pacis]]'', issued on 24 January 1506, confirmed papal approval of the ''[[mare clausum]]'' policy being pursued by [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] and [[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]] amid their [[Age of Discovery|explorations]], and approved the changes of the 1494 [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] to previous papal bulls. In the same year, Julius II founded the [[Swiss Guard]] to provide a constant corps of soldiers to protect the pope. As part of the Renaissance program of reestablishing the glory of antiquity for the Christian capital, Rome, Julius II took considerable effort to present himself as a sort of emperor-pope, capable of leading a Latin-Christian empire. On Palm Sunday, 1507, "Julius II entered Rome ... both as a second [[Julius Caesar]], heir to the majesty of Rome's imperial glory, and in the likeness of Christ, whose vicar the pope was, and who in that capacity governed the universal Roman Church."<ref>{{cite book | last = Stinger | first= Charles M. | title = The Renaissance in Rome | publisher= Indiana University Press |date=1985 }}</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2020}} Julius, who modeled himself after his namesake Caesar, would personally lead his army across the Italian peninsula under the imperial war-cry, "Drive out the barbarians." Yet, despite the imperial rhetoric, the campaigns were highly localized.<ref>{{cite book |last=Machiavelli |first=Niccolo |title=The Prince |date=1992 |publisher=Norton |editor-last=Adams |editor-first=Robert M. |pages=72, n3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> Perugia voluntarily surrendered in March 1507 to direct control, as it had always been within the Papal States; it was in these endeavors he had enlisted French mercenaries.{{sfn|Albury|2011|p=324}}

[[Urbino]]'s magnificent [[Ducal Palace, Urbino|Ducal Palace]] was infiltrated by French soldiers in the pay of the Margrave of Mantua; the [[Montefeltro Conspiracy]] against his loyal cousins earned the occupying armies the Pope's undying hatred.<ref>Marcello Simonetta (2008). ''The Montefeltro Conspiracy: A Renaissance Mystery Decoded'', (New York: Doubleday), pp. 140, 144, 170, 180–182, 204.</ref> Julius relied upon Guidobaldo's help to raise his nephew and heir [[Francesco Maria I della Rovere, Duke of Urbino|Francesco Maria della Rovere]]; the intricate web of nepotism helped secure the Italian Papacy.{{sfn|Albury|2011|p=329}} Moreover, the Pope's interest in Urbino was widely known in the French court.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clough |first=Cecil H. |date=1978 |title=Francis I and the Courtiers of Castiglione's Courtier |journal=European Studies Review |volume=8 |page=47|doi=10.1177/026569147800800103 |s2cid=144288791 }}</ref> Julius left a spy at the Urbino Palace, possibly [[Galeotto Franciotti della Rovere]], Cardinal of San Pietro, to watch the Mantua stables in total secret; the secular progress of the Papal Curia was growing in authority and significance. In Rome, the Pope watched from his private chapel to see how his court behaved. This was an age of Renaissance conspiracy.{{sfn|Albury|2014|pp=36–37}}

===League of Cambrai and Holy League===
[[File:Leonardo della Rovere.jpg|thumb|left|[[Leonardo Grosso della Rovere]], the fourth [[Cardinal-nephew]] of Julius II, accompanied him on his military campaigns in [[Bologna]] and [[Perugia]], and served as his ambassador to France.]]

In addition to an active military policy, the new pope personally led troops into battle on at least two occasions, the first to expel Giovanni Bentivoglio from [[Bologna]] (17 August 1506 – 23 March 1507), which was achieved successfully with the assistance of the Duchy of Urbino. The second was an attempt to recover the [[Duchy of Ferrara]] for the Papal States (1 September 1510 – 29 June 1512).{{sfn|Grassi|1886}}{{Page needed|date=March 2021}} In 1508, Julius was fortuitously able to form the [[League of Cambrai]] with King [[Louis XII]] of France, [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (proclaimed without [[Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor|coronation]] as emperor by Pope Julius II at [[Trento|Trent]] in 1508) and King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Jean Baptiste Dubox|title=Histoire De La Ligue Faite A Cambray Entre Jules II. Pape, Maximilien I. Empereur Louis XII. Roy de France, Ferdinand V. Roy d'Arragon, & Tous Les Princes d'Italie. Contre La Republique De Venise. Quatrieme Edition Revue, corrigee & augmentee par l'Auteur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FMpTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA223|edition=Quatrieme|volume=Tome premier |date=1728 |publisher=M. G. de Merville|location=Paris|language=fr}}</ref> The League fought against the [[Republic of Venice]].{{efn| Also known as the "War of the League of Cambrai"}} Among other things, Julius wanted possession of Venetian [[Romagna]]; Emperor Maximilian I wanted [[Friuli]] and [[Veneto]]; Louis XII wanted [[Cremona]], and Ferdinand II desired the [[Apulia]]n ports.<ref name=Shaw/><ref>{{cite book | last =Guicciardini | first= Francesco| title = The History of Italy | location = Princeton | publisher = Princeton University Press |date=1984 | isbn = 978-0691008004 | pages = 196–197 }}</ref> This war was a conflict in what was collectively known as the "[[Italian Wars]]". In the spring of 1509, the Republic of Venice was placed under an [[interdict]] by Julius,<ref>{{cite journal|first=Richard |last=Cavendish |title=Venice Excommunicated |journal=History Today |volume=59 |issue=4 |date=2009}} {{Subscription required|date=October 2013}}</ref> In May 1509 Julius sent troops to fight against the Venetians who had occupied parts of the Romagna, winning back the Papal States in the decisive [[Battle of Agnadello]] near Cremona.{{r|Ott1910}}

During the War of the Holy League, alliances kept changing: in 1510 Venice and France switched places, and by 1513, Venice had joined France.<ref>John Rickard, {{cite web|url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_holy_league.html|title=War of the Holy League, 1510–1514|website=www.historyofwar.org|access-date=28 January 2017}}{{self-published source|date=March 2018}}</ref> The achievements of the League soon outstripped the primary intention of Julius. In one single battle, the Battle of Agnadello on 14 May 1509, the dominion of Venice in Italy was practically lost to the pope. Neither the King of France nor the Holy Roman Emperor was satisfied with merely effecting the purposes of the Pope; the latter found it necessary to enter into an arrangement with the Venetians to defend himself from those who immediately before had been his allies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jean Baptiste Dubos|title=Histoire De La Ligue Faite A Cambray Entre Jules II. Pape, Maximilien I. Empereur, Louis XII. Roy de France, Ferdinand V. Roy d'Arragon, & Tous Les Princes d'Italie. Contre La Republique De Venise. Quatrieme Edition Revue, corrigee & augmentee par l'Auteur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FMpTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA223%7CEDITION%3DQUATRIEME%7CVOLUME%3DTOME+PREMIER%7CYEAR%3D1728%7CPUBLISHER%3DM.+G.+DE+MERVILLE%7CLOCATION%3DPARIS%7CLANGUAGE%3DFRENCH%7D%7D|edition=Quatrieme|volume=Tome second |date=1728 |publisher=M. G. de Merville|location=Paris|language=fr}}</ref> The Venetians, on making humble submission, were absolved at the beginning of 1510, and shortly afterward France was placed under papal interdict.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2003) pp. 648–649</ref>

[[File:Sisto della Rovere.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sisto Gara della Rovere]], the fifth cardinal nephew of Julius II, was the Prior in Rome of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights Hospitaller of Malta]].]]
Attempts to cause a rupture between France and [[Kingdom of England|England]] proved unsuccessful; on the other hand, at a [[synod]] convened by Louis at [[Tours]] in September 1510, the French bishops withdrew from papal obedience and resolved, with the Emperor's co-operation, to seek dethronement of the pope. With some courage Julius marched his army to Bologna and then against the French to [[Mirandola]].{{r|Ott1910}} In November 1511, a council met at [[Pisa]], called by rebel cardinals with support from the French king and the Empire; they demanded the deposition of Julius II.<ref>{{cite book | first = Augustin | last = Renaudet | title = Le concile Gallican de Pise-Milan | url = https://archive.org/details/leconcilegallica00renauoft | location = Paris | publisher= H. Champion |date=1922 }}</ref> <!-- Despite being seriously h -->He refused to shave, showing utter contempt for the hated French occupation. "per vendicarsi et diceva ... anco fuora scazato el re Ludovico Franza d'Italia."{{sfn|Pastor|1902|loc=VI, p. 339 n}}

[[File:La Resa di Mirandola (1810).JPG|thumb|left|''Pope Julius II on the walls of the [[Siege of Mirandola (1511)|conquered]] city of [[Mirandola]]'' (oil on canvas by [[Raffaello Tancredi]], 1890, City Hall of [[Mirandola]])]]
Whereupon Julius entered into another [[Holy League (1511)|Holy League of 1511]]: in alliance with Ferdinand II of Aragon and the Venetians he conspired against the [[Gallicanism|Gallican]] liberties. In a short time, both [[Henry VIII of England]] (1509–47), and [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] joined the Holy League of 1511 against France. Ferdinand of Aragon now recognized Naples as a papal fief, invested in 1511, and therefore Julius II now regarded France as the main foreign power in the Italian peninsula hostile to Papal interests. Louis XII defeated the alliance at [[Battle of Ravenna (1512)|Battle of Ravenna]] on 11 April 1512. When a desperate battle felled over 20,000 men in a bloodbath the Pope commanded his protege, a newly released young Cardinal Medici to re-take Florence with a Spanish army. The rescue of the city on 1 September 1512 saved Rome from another invasion, ousting [[Piero Soderini]], and returning the dynastic rule of the Medici. Julius had seemingly restored ''[[fortuna]]'' or control by exercising his manly ''vertu'', just as Machiavelli wrote. This re-asserted a strong relation between Florence and Rome, a lasting legacy of Julius II. Yet Machiavelli and his methods would not outlast Julius' Papacy.{{sfn|Strathern|2003|pp=264–266}}

Julius [[Holy League (1511)|hired Swiss mercenaries]] to fight against the French in Milan in May 1512,{{r|Norwich1989}}<ref>{{cite book | first= Charles | last =Oman |title = A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century | location = London | publisher = Methuen & Co. |date=1937 | page = 152}}</ref> causing the French army to withdraw across the Alps into Savoy. The papacy gained control of [[Parma]] and [[Piacenza]] in central Italy. With the French out of Italy and Spain recognizing Naples as a papal fief, a Congress was held in Mantua by Julius II to declare the liberation of the peninsula. Nevertheless, although Julius had centralized and expanded the [[Papal States]], he was far from realizing his dream of an independent Italian kingdom. Italy was not at peace either. The French were preparing new campaigns to reconquer Milan, and Julius II confessed to a Venetian ambassador a plan to invest his counselor [[Luigi d'Aragona]] with the Kingdom of Naples in order to end Spanish presence in the south. In fact, after the death of Julius, war would resume and the treaties of Noyon and Brussels in 1516 would again divide much of Italy between French and Spanish influence.

===Lateran Council===
{{Main|Fifth Council of the Lateran}}
In May 1512 a general or ecumenical council, the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran]], was held in Rome. According to an oath taken on his election to observe the [[Electoral capitulation|Electoral Capitulations]] of the Conclave of October 1503,<ref>{{harvnb|Burchard|1885|loc=III, pp. 292, 294–298}}: "''Ego Julius II electus in summum Pontificem praemissa omnia et singula promitto juro et voveo observare et adimplere in omnibus et per omnia purae et simpliciter et bona fide realiter et cum effectu, et sub poena perjurii et anathematis, a quibus nec me ipsum absolvam, nec alicui absolutionem commitam. Ita me Deus adjuvet, et haec sancta Dei Evangelia.''"</ref> Julius had sworn to summon a general council, but it had been delayed, he affirmed, because of the occupation of Italy by his enemies.<ref>{{harvnb|Pastor|1902|loc=VI, p. 211}}.<br>{{cite book |last1=Spencer Baynes |first1=Thomas |date=1881 |title=The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |page=772}}</ref> The real stimulus came from a false council which took place in 1511, later called the ''[[Fifth Council of the Lateran#Conciliabulum of Pisa|Conciliabulum Pisanum]]'', inspired by [[Louis XII]] and [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] as a tactic to weaken Julius, threatening to depose him.<ref>{{harvnb|Mansi|1902|pp=561–578}}.<br>{{harvnb|Pastor|1902|loc=VI, pp. 389–394, 414–415}}.</ref> Julius' reply was the issuing of the bull ''Non-sini gravi'' of 18 July 1511, which fixed the date of 19 April 1512 for the opening of his own council.<ref>{{harvnb|Mansi|1902|p=653}}.<br>Cesare Baronius, ''Annales ecclesiastici'', under the year 1511, §§ 915 (in Theiner's edition), pp. 540–545; the bull is subscribed by twenty-one cardinals.</ref> The Council actually convened on 3 May 1512, and [[Paris de Grassis]] reports that the crowd at the basilica was estimated at 50,000.{{sfn|Döllinger|1882|p=417}} It held its first working session on 10 May.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregorovius|1900|loc=VII.1, pp. 101–103}}.<br>{{harvnb|Pastor|1902|loc=VI, pp. 364–365, 406–412}}.</ref> In the third plenary session, on 3 December 1512, Julius attended, though ill; but he wanted to witness and receive the formal adhesion of Emperor Maximilian to the Lateran Council and his repudiation of the ''Conciliabulum Pisanum''. This was one of Julius' great triumphs. The Pope was again in attendance at the fourth session on 10 December, this time to hear the accrediting of the Venetian Ambassador as the Serene Republic's representative at the council; he then had the letter of King [[Louis XI]] (of 27 November 1461), in which he announced the revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction, read out to the assembly, and demanded that all persons who accepted the Pragmatic Sanction appear before the Council within sixty days to justify their conduct. This was directed against the current French King Louis XII.<ref>{{harvnb|Pastor|1902|loc=VI, pp. 427–429}}.<br>{{harvnb|Mansi|1902|pp=747–752}}.</ref>

The fifth session was held on 16 February, but Pope Julius was too ill to attend. Cardinal [[Raffaele Riario]], the Dean of the College of Cardinals and Bishop of Ostia, presided. The [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Como|Bishop of Como]], [[Scaramuccia Trivulzio]], then read from the pulpit a papal bull, ''Si summus rerum'', dated that very day and containing within its text the complete bull of 14 January 1505, ''Cum tam divino''. The bull was submitted to the Council fathers for their consideration and ratification. Julius wanted to remind everyone of his legislation on papal conclaves, in particular against [[simony]], and to fix his regulations firmly in [[canon law]] so that they could not be dispensed or ignored. Julius was fully aware that his death was imminent, and wished to establish a major reform in his final days. Though he had been a witness to a good deal of simony at papal conclaves and had been a practitioner himself, he was determined to stamp out this abuse.<ref>{{harvnb|Mansi|1902|pp=762, 768–772}}.<br>{{harvnb|Dumesnil|1873|pp=249–251}}.<br>{{harvnb|Pastor|1902|loc=VI, p. 440}}.<br>Giovanni Berthelet, ''La elezione del papa: storia e documenti'' (Roma 1891), pp. 35–45 (with Italian translation).</ref> The reading of the bull ''Cum tam divino'' became a regular feature of the first day of every conclave.