Editing Political philosophy (section)

=== Others ===
[[Environmentalism]] is a political ideology concerned with the relation between humans and nature. It seeks to preserve, restore, and enhance the [[natural environment]], including the protection of landscapes and animals. [[Anthropocentric]] environmentalism advocates such policies to improve human life, for example, to mitigate the global consequences of [[climate change]] or to promote local [[environmental justice]] by protecting [[marginalized groups]] from regional [[environmental degradation]]. This form of environmentalism can be integrated in various other political ideologies, such as conservatism and socialism. Non-anthropocentric environmentalism, also called [[ecocentrism]] and [[deep ecology]], differs by focusing on the [[Value theory#Intrinsic and instrumental|intrinsic value]] of nature itself. This view emphasizes that humans are only a small part of the [[ecosystem]] as a whole. It seeks to protect and improve nature for its own sake, not only because it serves human interests. This outlook covers diverse and sometimes contrasting interpretations of the relation between humans and nature, including the belief that humans should act as custodians of nature and the idea that modern human civilizations are the source of the problem and threaten natural balance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Moseley|loc=§ 3e. Environmentalism}} | {{harvnb|Humphrey|2013|pp=293–299}} | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA235 235]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Portret van Niccolò Machiavelli, RP-P-1909-5432.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white portrait of a bearded man wearing a high-collared shirt|Realism is closely associated with [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s emphasis on power, self-interest, and pragmatic governance.<ref name="186–187">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Moseley|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bXU8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 186–187]}} | {{harvnb|Stevens|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q7IhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA191 191, 214–215]}} | {{harvnb|Laslett|Cummings|2006|loc=§ Machiavelli and Realpolitik}} }}</ref>]]

[[Realism (international relations)|Realism]] and [[Idealism in international relations|idealism]]{{efn|The specific meaning of these terms depends on the context: they denote different theories in other branches of philosophy, such as [[metaphysics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Zuolo|2016|loc=§ Preliminary, § Political Realism: Towards a definition, § Three Basic Features and Main Instances of Political Idealism}} | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 238–239, 247]}} | {{harvnb|Cerbone|2024|loc=§ Introduction}} }}</ref>}} are two opposing approaches to explaining and guiding political action. According to realism, political activity is primarily driven by [[self-interest]] and power. It asserts that actors use both [[Soft power|soft]] and [[hard power]] to expand their own [[sphere of influence]]. Realists argue that politics should not be limited by moral constraints or shy away from violent conflicts when the power aspirations of different actors collide. They emphasize the importance of responding to concrete practical factors, with the primary goal of effectively shaping historical reality rather than pursuing ideals. Idealism, by contrast, asserts that political action should follow [[Morality|moral principles]]. It seeks to establish a just and fair social order based on universal ethical norms rather than narrow self-interest. Idealists reject established practices and institutions that promote unjust use of power and seek to replace them with fair governance, even if their idealized vision reflects a [[utopian]] aspiration distant from current circumstances.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Zuolo|2016|loc=§ Preliminary, § Political Realism: Towards a definition, § Three Basic Features and Main Instances of Political Idealism}} | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 238–239, 247]}} }}</ref>

[[Consequentialism]], [[Perfectionism (philosophy)|perfectionism]], and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] are distinct but overlapping views about which things are valuable and how values should guide political activity. According to consequentialism, the value of any action depends on its concrete consequences. [[Classical utilitarianism]], an influential form of consequentialism, asserts that only [[happiness]] or [[pleasure]] is ultimately valuable. This view argues that politics should strive to produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2013|pp=333–334}} | {{harvnb|Wall|2013|pp=345–346}} }}</ref> [[Welfarism]], a closely related view, promotes [[well-being]], which can cover other features in addition to pleasure, such as health, [[personal growth]], meaningful [[Interpersonal relationship|relationships]], and a sense of [[Meaning of life|purpose in life]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2021|loc=Lead section, § 5.1 Welfarism}} | {{harvnb|Hall|Tiberius|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zZdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 175–176]}} | {{harvnb|Nebel|2024|loc=§ Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|2015|pp=15–16}} }}</ref> Perfectionism, a different evaluative outlook, asserts that there are certain objective goods, covering fields like morality, art, and culture, that promote the development of human nature. Although perfectionists disagree about what exactly those goods are, they all maintain that states should establish conditions that promote human excellence among their citizens.<ref>{{harvnb|Wall|2013|pp=345–346}}</ref> Value pluralists assert that diverse values influence political action. They often emphasize that different values can be opposed to each other and that value conflicts cannot always be resolved. For example, [[Isaiah Berlin]] argued that liberty and equality are conflicting values and that a gain in one value cannot make up for the loss in the other.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowder|2013|pp=356–357}}</ref>

[[Individualism]] prioritizes the importance of individuals over the community, an ideal typically promoted by liberal political systems. It emphasizes that society is at its core made up of individuals and seeks to defend them from social attempts to interfere with their preferred lifestyles. Individualism contrasts with [[collectivism]], which prioritizes the well-being of groups over individual interests and emphasizes the importance of group cohesion and unity. [[Communitarianism]] is a similar outlook that supports a social structure in which individuals are connected through strong social relationships and shared values. It argues that the personality and [[social identity]] of individuals are deeply influenced by community relations and social norms.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 230–231, 240]}} | {{harvnb|Brown|McLean|McMillan|2018|loc=§ Collectivism, § Communitarianism, § Individualism}} }}</ref> [[Nationalism]] extends the focus on social relations to the state as a whole. It is closely associated with [[patriotism]] and promotes social cohesion through [[national identity]] based on shared customs, culture, and language.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA243 243]}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA465 465–466]}} | {{harvnb|Hill|Moore|2013|pp=485–486}} }}</ref>

[[Republicanism]] is a broad philosophical tradition that emphasizes [[civic virtue]], [[political participation]], and the rule of law. It argues that political action should promote the common good and social equality. This tradition is opposed to oppressive and authoritarian governance, advocating the separation of powers to prevent overconcentration of authority, encouraging citizens to participate in the political process, and seeking to hold the government accountable to the people.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lovett|2022|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA248 248]}} }}</ref> [[Populism]] encompasses a variety of political outlooks that seek to promote the interests of ordinary people, typically contrasting the will of the people with the agenda of corrupt elites wielding power. The term is often associated with the negative connotation of attempting to gain support from uninformed people by appealing to popular sentiment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA537 537]}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Populism}} }}</ref> Conversely, [[elitism]] is the belief that elites, rather than common people, should run the government.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|McLean|McMillan|2018|loc=§ Elitism}}</ref>

Various ideologies integrate religious values and principles into their political outlook. [[Christian democracy]], an influential tradition in [[Western Europe]], blends traditional [[Catholic social teaching]]s with democratic principles, emphasizing community, family, a harmonious social order, [[Personalism|respect for each person]], and tradition together with a critique of the modern [[Economic materialism|focus on material wealth and power]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Accetti|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QIGxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1, 8, 53]}} | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Christian Democracy}} }}</ref> [[Islamism]] seeks to incorporate [[Islam]]ic principles into governance, including the implementation of [[Sharia|Islamic law]] while maintaining a critical attitude towards Western influences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Islamic politics}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA349 349]}} }}</ref> [[Hindu nationalism]] promotes governance and national identity rooted in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] values and traditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|McLean|McMillan|2018|loc=§ Hindu Nationalism}}</ref> Other religion-inspired political ideologies include [[Zionism]], [[Buddhist socialism]], and [[Confucianism]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|McLean|McMillan|2018|loc=§ Chinese political thought, § Zionism}} | {{harvnb|Bajpai|Bonura|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IZo2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA674 674]}} }}</ref> Contrasting with these approaches, [[Secularism]] opposes the integration of religious principles into politics.<ref>{{harvnb|Zala|2019}}</ref>

[[Contractarianism]] and [[contractualism]] are views about the sources and legitimacy of power. They argue that political authority should be based on some form of consent among the citizens, for example, as an implicit social contract or as what people would reasonably agree to under ideal circumstances.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Finkelstein|2013|pp=307–308}} | {{harvnb|James|2013|pp=321–322}} }}</ref>

[[Postmodernism]] rejects ideological systems that claim to offer objective, universal truths, with a particularly critical attitude towards [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] ideals of reason and progress. They oppose hierarchical power structures that perpetuate and enforce these ideals, calling instead for resistance to this type of centralized power while promoting a pluralism of local practices and ideologies.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McLean|McMillan|2009|loc=§ Post-modernism}} | {{harvnb|May|2013|pp=665–667}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA542 542]}} }}</ref> [[Feminism]], another critical approach, targets injustice based on [[gender]], aiming to empower women and liberate them from unfair [[patriarchal]] social structures. Feminists focus on various forms of inequality, including social, economic, political, and legal inequality.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiala|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XXApBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 236]}} | {{harvnb|Scruton|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9uGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 247–248]}} }}</ref>