Editing Pesticide (section)

==Disadvantages==
On the cost side of pesticide use there can be [[environmental damage|costs to the environment]] and costs to human health.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fantke P, Friedrich R, Jolliet O |title=Health impact and damage cost assessment of pesticides in Europe |journal=Environment International |volume=49 |pages=9–17 |date=November 2012 |pmid=22940502 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2012.08.001|bibcode=2012EnInt..49....9F }}</ref> Pesticides safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the public from [[pesticide misuse]], but do not eliminate all misuse. Reducing the use of pesticides and choosing less toxic pesticides may reduce risks placed on society and the environment from pesticide use.<ref name="VCE" />

===Health effects===
{{Main|Health effects of pesticides}}

{{further|Pesticide poisoning|Environmental impact of pesticides #Humans|}}
[[File:Warning2Pesticides.jpg|thumb|A sign warning about potential pesticide exposure]]

Most health concerns related to pesticides stem from direct use, whether in occupational or non-occupational settings. In contrast, health risks from [[pesticide residue]]s in fruits and vegetables are considered minimal.

Occupational use of pesticides may affect health negatively.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/newnote/workshop3.htm |title=National Assessment of the Worker Protection Workshop #3 |date=Aug 30, 2007 |website=Pesticides: Health and Safety |publisher=U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927235545/http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/safety/newnote/workshop3.htm |archive-date=September 27, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Occupational exposure to chemicals and hearing impairment |url=https://www.norskoljeoggass.no/globalassets/dokumenter/drift/arbeidsmiljo/kjemisk-arbeidsmiljo/fagtema/horselsskadelige-kjemikalier/occupational-exposure-to-chemicals-and-hearing-impairment.pdf |website=norskoljeoggass.no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329205326/https://www.norskoljeoggass.no/globalassets/dokumenter/drift/arbeidsmiljo/kjemisk-arbeidsmiljo/fagtema/horselsskadelige-kjemikalier/occupational-exposure-to-chemicals-and-hearing-impairment.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-29 |url-status=live}}</ref> mimicking hormones causing reproductive problems, and also causing cancer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/human.htm |title=Human Health Issues |date=Jun 28, 2006 |website=Pesticides: Health and Safety |publisher=[[Environmental Protection Agency|US EPA]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528144110/http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/human.htm |archive-date=May 28, 2015}}</ref> A 2007 [[systematic review]] found that "most studies on [[non-Hodgkin lymphoma]] and [[leukemia]] showed positive associations with pesticide exposure" and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bassil KL, Vakil C, Sanborn M, Cole DC, Kaur JS, Kerr KJ |title=Cancer health effects of pesticides: systematic review |journal=Canadian Family Physician |volume=53 |issue=10 |pages=1704–11 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17934034 |pmc=2231435}}</ref> There is substantial evidence of associations between organophosphate insecticide exposures and neurobehavioral alterations.<ref name=":32">{{cite journal |last1=Jurewicz |first1=Joanna |last2=Hanke |first2=Wojciech |title=Prenatal and Childhood Exposure to Pesticides and Neurobehavioral Development: Review of Epidemiological Studies |journal=International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=121–32 |year=2008 |pmid=18614459 |doi=10.2478/v10001-008-0014-z |doi-broken-date=February 17, 2025 |issn=1896-494X |url=http://oldwww.imp.lodz.pl/home_en/publishing_office/journals_/_ijomeh/&articleId=20947&l=PL }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Weselak M, Arbuckle TE, Foster W |title=Pesticide exposures and developmental outcomes: the epidemiological evidence |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews |volume=10 |issue=1–2 |pages=41–80 |year=2007 |pmid=18074304 |doi=10.1080/10937400601034571 |bibcode=2007JTEHB..10...41W |s2cid=25304655}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wigle DT, Arbuckle TE, Turner MC, Bérubé A, Yang Q, Liu S, Krewski D |title=Epidemiologic evidence of relationships between reproductive and child health outcomes and environmental chemical contaminants |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews |volume=11 |issue=5–6 |pages=373–517 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18470797 |doi=10.1080/10937400801921320 |bibcode=2008JTEHB..11..373W |s2cid=33463851}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mink PJ, Mandel JS, Lundin JI, Sceurman BK |title=Epidemiologic studies of glyphosate and non-cancer health outcomes: a review |journal=[[Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology]] |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=172–84 |date=November 2011 |pmid=21798302 |doi=10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.07.006}}</ref> Limited evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological, [[birth defects]], and [[fetal death]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sanborn M, Kerr KJ, Sanin LH, Cole DC, Bassil KL, Vakil C |title=Non-cancer health effects of pesticides: systematic review and implications for family doctors |journal=Canadian Family Physician |volume=53 |issue=10 |pages=1712–20 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17934035 |pmc=2231436}}</ref>

2014 epidemiological review found associations between autism and exposure to certain pesticides, but noted that the available evidence was insufficient to conclude that the relationship was causal.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kalkbrenner AE, Schmidt RJ, Penlesky AC |title=Environmental chemical exposures and autism spectrum disorders: a review of the epidemiological evidence |journal=Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=277–318 |date=November 2014 |pmid=25199954 |pmc=4855851 |doi=10.1016/j.cppeds.2014.06.001}}</ref>

Owing to inadequate regulation and safety precautions, 99% of pesticide-related deaths occur in developing countries that account for only 25% of pesticide usage.<ref name=":022">{{Cite report |title=Childhood Pesticide Poisoning: Information for Advocacy and Action |last=Goldmann |first=Lynn |date=May 2004 |url=https://www.who.int/ceh/publications/pestpoisoning.pdf |publisher=[[World Health Organization|WHO]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517035747/https://www.who.int/ceh/publications/pestpoisoning.pdf |archive-date=2009-05-17}}</ref>

==== Exposure to pesticide residues from eating food ====
{{Main|Pesticide residue#Health impacts}}
According to the [[American Cancer Society]] there is no evidence that pesticide residues in food increase the risk of people getting cancer.<ref name="acs">{{cite web |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]] |url=http://www.cancer.org/healthy/eathealthygetactive/acsguidelinesonnutritionphysicalactivityforcancerprevention/acs-guidelines-on-nutrition-and-physical-activity-for-cancer-prevention-common-questions |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414122451/http://www.cancer.org/healthy/eathealthygetactive/acsguidelinesonnutritionphysicalactivityforcancerprevention/acs-guidelines-on-nutrition-and-physical-activity-for-cancer-prevention-common-questions |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 April 2013 |access-date=12 December 2015 |date=9 April 2015 |title=ACS Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for Cancer Prevention – Common questions about diet and cancer }}</ref> A 2009 study estimated that lifetime exposure to pesticide residues from eating fruits and vegetables results in only 4.2 and 3.2 minutes of lost life per person in Switzerland and the United States, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |date=November 2009 |title=Life cycle human toxicity assessment of pesticides: comparing fruit and vegetable diets in Switzerland and the United States |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19729188/ |work=National Library of Medicine |language=en}}</ref>

==== Non-occupational pesticide use====
Pesticides are also found in majority of U.S. households with 88&nbsp;million out of the 121.1&nbsp;million households indicating that they use some form of pesticide in 2012.<ref name="EPAPesticides">{{cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-01/documents/pesticides-industry-sales-usage-2016_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417185628/https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-01/documents/pesticides-industry-sales-usage-2016_0.pdf |archive-date=2017-04-17 |url-status=live |title=Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage 2008–2012 |date=2012 |publisher=US EPA |access-date=26 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/183635/number-of-households-in-the-us/ |title=U.S.: Number of households 1960–2017 |website=Statista |access-date=26 March 2018}}</ref> As of 2007, there were more than 1,055 active ingredients registered as pesticides,<ref name="Goldman 2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goldman LR |year=2007 |title=Managing pesticide chronic health risks: U.S. policies |journal=Journal of Agromedicine |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.1300/J096v12n02_08 |pmid=18032337 |s2cid=216149465}}</ref> which yield over 20,000 pesticide products that are marketed in the United States.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Pesticide Illness & Injury Surveillance |date=Feb 7, 2017 |website=CDC.gov |publisher=[[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|NIOSH]] |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/pesticides/ |access-date=Jan 28, 2014}}</ref>

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends limiting exposure of children to pesticides and using safer alternatives:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=James R. |last2=Karr |first2=Catherine J. |collaboration=Council On Environmental Health |title=Pesticide exposure in children |journal=Pediatrics |volume=130 |issue=6 |pages=e1757–63 |date=December 2012 |pmid=23184103 |doi=10.1542/peds.2012-2757 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

One study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful to humans.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gunnell D, Eddleston M, Phillips MR, Konradsen F |title=The global distribution of fatal pesticide self-poisoning: systematic review |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=357 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18154668 |pmc=2262093 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-7-357 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Pesticide use among agricultural workers ====
The World Health Organization and the [[UN Environment Programme]] estimate that 3&nbsp;million agricultural workers in the developing world experience severe [[Pesticide poisoning|poisoning from pesticides]] each year, resulting in 18,000 deaths.<ref name="sustaining"/> According to one study, as many as 25&nbsp;million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeyaratnam J |title=Acute pesticide poisoning: a major global health problem |journal=World Health Statistics Quarterly. Rapport Trimestriel de Statistiques Sanitaires Mondiales |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=139–44 |year=1990 |pmid=2238694}}</ref> Other occupational exposures besides agricultural workers, including pet groomers, [[Groundskeeping|groundskeepers]], and [[Fumigation|fumigators]], may also put individuals at risk of health effects from pesticides.<ref name=":2"/>

Pesticide use is widespread in [[Latin America]], as around US$3&nbsp;billion are spent each year in the region. Records indicate an increase in the frequency of pesticide poisonings over the past two decades. The most common incidents of pesticide poisoning is thought to result from exposure to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Laborde A, Tomasina F, Bianchi F, Bruné M, Buka I, Comba P, Corra L, Cori L, Duffert CM |date=2015 |title=Children's Health in Latin America: The Influence of Environmental Exposures |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=123 |issue=3 |pages=201–209 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1408292 |issn=0091-6765 |pmc=4348745 |pmid=25499717|bibcode=2015EnvHP.123..201L }}</ref> At-home pesticide use, use of unregulated products, and the role of undocumented workers within the agricultural industry makes characterizing true pesticide exposure a challenge. It is estimated that 50–80% of pesticide poisoning cases are unreported.

Underreporting of pesticide poisoning is especially common in areas where agricultural workers are less likely to seek care from a healthcare facility that may be monitoring or tracking the incidence of acute poisoning. The extent of unintentional pesticide poisoning may be much greater than available data suggest, particularly among developing countries. Globally, agriculture and food production remain one of the largest industries. In East Africa, the agricultural industry represents one of the largest sectors of the economy, with nearly 80% of its population relying on agriculture for income.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Agriculture & Food Security |website=www.eac.int |url=https://www.eac.int/agriculture#:~:text=The%20major%20food%20crops%20are,tobacco,%20coconut%20and%20cashew%20nuts.|access-date=2020-11-30}}</ref> Farmers in these communities rely on pesticide products to maintain high crop yields.

Some East Africa governments are shifting to [[corporate farming]], and opportunities for foreign conglomerates to operate commercial farms have led to more accessible research on pesticide use and exposure among workers. In other areas where large proportions of the population rely on subsistence, small-scale farming, estimating pesticide use and exposure is more difficult.

==== Pesticide poisoning ====
[[File:Cholinergic synapse-de.svg|thumb|The cholinergic synapse and the breakdown of [[acetylcholine]] into choline and acetate by acetylcholinesterase]]
Pesticides may exhibit toxic effects on [[Environmental impact of pesticides#Humans|humans]] and other non-target species, the severity of which depends on the frequency and magnitude of exposure. Toxicity also depends on the rate of absorption, distribution within the body, metabolism, and elimination of compounds from the body. Commonly used pesticides like organophosphates and carbamates act by inhibiting [[acetylcholinesterase]] activity, which prevents the breakdown of [[acetylcholine]] at the neural [[synapse]]. Excess acetylcholine can lead to [[Organophosphate poisoning#Signs and symptoms|symptoms]] like muscle cramps or tremors, confusion, dizziness and nausea. Studies show that farm workers in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Zimbabwe have decreased concentrations of plasma acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down acetylcholine acting on synapses throughout the [[nervous system]].<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Mekonnen |first1=Yalemtsehay |last2=Ejigu |first2=D. |date=September 2005 |title=Plasma cholinesterase level of Ethiopian farm workers exposed to chemical pesticide |journal=Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England) |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=504–505 |doi=10.1093/occmed/kqi088 |issn=0962-7480 |pmid=16140842 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ohayo-Mitoko GJ, Kromhout H, Simwa JM, Boleij JS, Heederik D |date=2000 |title=Self reported symptoms and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity among Kenyan agricultural workers |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=195–200 |doi=10.1136/oem.57.3.195 |issn=1351-0711 |pmc=1739922 |pmid=10810102}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last1=Magauzi |first1=Regis |last2=Mabaera |first2=Bigboy |last3=Rusakaniko |first3=Simbarashe |last4=Chimusoro |first4=Anderson |last5=Ndlovu |first5=Nqobile |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Mufuta |last7=Shambira |first7=Gerald |last8=Chadambuka |first8=Addmore |last9=Gombe |first9=Notion |date=2011-07-11 |title=Health effects of agrochemicals among farm workers in commercial farms of Kwekwe district, Zimbabwe |journal=The Pan African Medical Journal |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=26 |doi=10.4314/pamj.v9i1.71201 |issn=1937-8688 |pmc=3215548 |pmid=22145061}}</ref> Other studies in Ethiopia have observed reduced respiratory function among farm workers who spray crops with pesticides.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mekonnen |first1=Yalemtsehay |last2=Agonafir |first2=Tadesse |date=2004 |title=Lung function and respiratory symptoms of pesticide sprayers in state farms of Ethiopia |journal=Ethiopian Medical Journal |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=261–266 |issn=0014-1755 |pmid=16122117}}</ref> Numerous exposure pathways for farm workers increase the risk of pesticide poisoning, including dermal absorption walking through fields and applying products, as well as inhalation exposure.

==== Measuring exposure to pesticides ====
There are multiple approaches to measuring a person's exposure to pesticides, each of which provides an estimate of an individual's internal dose. Two broad approaches include measuring biomarkers and markers of biological effect.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |vauthors=He F |date=1999-09-05 |title=Biological monitoring of exposure to pesticides: current issues |journal=Toxicology Letters |volume=108 |issue=2–3 |pages=277–283 |doi=10.1016/S0378-4274(99)00099-5 |pmid=10511272}}</ref> The former involves taking direct measurement of the parent compound or its metabolites in various types of media: urine, blood, serum. Biomarkers may include a direct measurement of the compound in the body before it's been biotransformed during metabolism. Other suitable biomarkers may include the metabolites of the parent compound after they've been biotransformed during metabolism.<ref name=":03" /> Toxicokinetic data can provide more detailed information on how quickly the compound is metabolized and eliminated from the body, and provide insights into the timing of exposure.

Markers of biological effect provide an estimation of exposure based on cellular activities related to the mechanism of action. For example, many studies investigating exposure to pesticides often involve the quantification of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme at the neural synapse to determine the magnitude of the inhibitory effect of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides.<ref name=":13"/><ref name=":33"/><ref name=":23"/><ref name=":03"/>

Another method of quantifying exposure involves measuring, at the molecular level, the amount of pesticide interacting with the site of action. These methods are more commonly used for occupational exposures where the mechanism of action is better understood, as described by WHO guidelines published in "Biological Monitoring of Chemical Exposure in the Workplace".<ref>{{Cite book |author=((World Health Organization. Office of Occupational Health.)) |title=Biological monitoring of chemical exposure in the workplace: guidelines |date=1996 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-951-802-158-5 |language=en |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/41856 |hdl=10665/41856}}</ref> Better understanding of how pesticides elicit their toxic effects is needed before this method of exposure assessment can be applied to occupational exposure of agricultural workers.

Alternative methods to assess exposure include questionnaires to discern from participants whether they are experiencing symptoms associated with pesticide poisoning. Self-reported symptoms may include headaches, dizziness, nausea, joint pain, or respiratory symptoms.<ref name=":33"/>

===== Challenges in assessing pesticide exposure =====
Multiple challenges exist in assessing exposure to pesticides in the general population, and many others that are specific to occupational exposures of agricultural workers. Beyond farm workers, estimating exposure to family members and children presents additional challenges, and may occur through "take-home" exposure from pesticide residues collected on clothing or equipment belonging to parent farm workers and inadvertently brought into the home. Children may also be exposed to pesticides prenatally from mothers who are exposed to pesticides during pregnancy.<ref name=":32"/> Characterizing children's exposure resulting from drift of airborne and spray application of pesticides is similarly challenging, yet well documented in developing countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wesseling |first1=Catharina |last2=De Joode |first2=Berna Van Wendel |last3=Ruepert |first3=Clemens |last4=León |first4=Catalina |last5=Monge |first5=Patricia |last6=Hermosillo |first6=Hernán |last7=Partanen |first7=Limo J. |date=October 2001|title=Paraquat in Developing Countries |journal=International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=275–286 |url=http://www.maneyonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/oeh.2001.7.4.275 |doi=10.1179/oeh.2001.7.4.275 |pmid=11783857 |issn=1077-3525 |language=en}}</ref> Because of critical development periods of the fetus and newborn children, these non-working populations are more vulnerable to the effects of pesticides, and may be at increased risk of developing neurocognitive effects and impaired development.<ref name=":32"/><ref name=":022"/>

While measuring biomarkers or markers of biological effects may provide more accurate estimates of exposure, collecting these data in the field is often impractical and many methods are not sensitive enough to detect low-level concentrations. Rapid cholinesterase test kits exist to collect blood samples in the field. Conducting large scale assessments of agricultural workers in remote regions of developing countries makes the implementation of these kits a challenge.<ref name=":03"/> The cholinesterase assay is a useful clinical tool to assess individual exposure and acute toxicity. Considerable variability in baseline enzyme activity among individuals makes it difficult to compare field measurements of cholinesterase activity to a [[reference dose]] to determine health risk associated with exposure.<ref name=":03"/> Another challenge in deriving a reference dose is identifying health endpoints that are relevant to exposure. More epidemiological research is needed to identify critical health endpoints, particularly among populations who are occupationally exposed.

==== Prevention ====
Minimizing harmful exposure to pesticides can be achieved by proper use of personal protective equipment, adequate reentry times into recently sprayed areas, and effective product labeling for hazardous substances as per [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act|FIFRA]] regulations. Training high-risk populations, including agricultural workers, on the proper use and storage of pesticides, can reduce the incidence of acute pesticide poisoning and potential chronic health effects associated with exposure. Continued research into the human toxic health effects of pesticides serves as a basis for relevant policies and enforceable [[Pesticide regulation in the United States|standards]] that are health protective to all populations.

===Environmental effects===
{{Main|Environmental effects of pesticides}}
Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil.<ref name="sustaining"/> [[Pesticide drift]] occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of [[water pollution]], and some pesticides were [[persistent organic pollutants]] (now banned), which contribute to [[soil contamination|soil]] and flower (pollen, nectar) contamination.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|title=A survey of honey bee-collected pollen reveals widespread contamination by agricultural pesticides |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=615 |pages=208–218 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.226 |pmid=28968582 |year=2018 |last1=Tosi |first1=Simone |last2=Costa |first2=Cecilia |last3=Vesco |first3=Umberto |last4=Quaglia |first4=Giancarlo |last5=Guido |first5=Giovanni |s2cid=19956612}}</ref> Furthermore, pesticide use can adversely impact neighboring agricultural activity, as pests themselves drift to and harm nearby crops that have no pesticide used on them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 21, 2020 |title=Soyalism {{!}} DW Documentary |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ksrc7eI3IMY&t=1459 |website=YouTube |location=Brazil |type=AV media}}</ref>

In addition, pesticide use reduces invertebrate [[biodiversity]] in streams,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liess |first1=Matthias |last2=Liebmann |first2=Liana |last3=Vormeier |first3=Philipp |last4=Weisner |first4=Oliver |last5=Altenburger |first5=Rolf |last6=Borchardt |first6=Dietrich |last7=Brack |first7=Werner |last8=Chatzinotas |first8=Antonis |last9=Escher |first9=Beate |last10=Foit |first10=Kaarina |last11=Gunold |first11=Roman |last12=Henz |first12=Sebastian |last13=Hitzfeld |first13=Kristina L. |last14=Schmitt-Jansen |first14=Mechthild |last15=Kamjunke |first15=Norbert |date=2021-08-01 |title=Pesticides are the dominant stressors for vulnerable insects in lowland streams |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0043135421004607 |journal=Water Research |volume=201 |pages=117262 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2021.117262 |pmid=34118650 |bibcode=2021WatRe.20117262L |issn=0043-1354}}</ref> contributes to [[pollinator decline]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dicks |first1=Lynn V. |last2=Breeze |first2=Tom D. |last3=Ngo |first3=Hien T. |last4=Senapathi |first4=Deepa |last5=An |first5=Jiandong |last6=Aizen |first6=Marcelo A. |last7=Basu |first7=Parthiba |last8=Buchori |first8=Damayanti |last9=Galetto |first9=Leonardo |last10=Garibaldi |first10=Lucas A. |last11=Gemmill-Herren |first11=Barbara |last12=Howlett |first12=Brad G. |last13=Imperatriz-Fonseca |first13=Vera L. |last14=Johnson |first14=Steven D. |last15=Kovács-Hostyánszki |first15=Anikó |last16=Kwon |first16=Yong Jung |last17=Lattorff |first17=H. Michael G. |last18=Lungharwo |first18=Thingreipi |last19=Seymour |first19=Colleen L. |last20=Vanbergen |first20=Adam J. |last21=Potts |first21=Simon G. |title=A global-scale expert assessment of drivers and risks associated with pollinator decline |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |date=16 August 2021 |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=1453–1461 |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01534-9 |pmid=34400826 |bibcode=2021NatEE...5.1453D |s2cid=237148742 |url=http://rid.unrn.edu.ar/handle/20.500.12049/7526}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goulson |first1=Dave |last2=Nicholls |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Botías |first3=Cristina |last4=Rotheray |first4=Ellen L. |title=Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers |journal=Science |date=27 March 2015 |volume=347 |issue=6229 |pages=1255957 |doi=10.1126/science.1255957 |pmid=25721506 |s2cid=206558985 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wells |first=Matt |title=Vanishing bees threaten U.S. crops |date=March 11, 2007 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6438373.stm |access-date=2007-09-19 |website=[[BBC News]] |location=London}}</ref> destroys habitat (especially for birds),<ref name="palmerw">{{cite web |vauthors=Palmer WE, Bromley PT, Brandenburg RL |url=http://ipm.ncsu.edu/wildlife/peanuts_wildlife.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217024025/http://ipm.ncsu.edu/wildlife/peanuts_wildlife.html |archive-date=17 February 2008 |title=Wildlife & Pesticides – Peanuts |publisher=North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service |access-date=11 October 2007}}</ref> and threatens [[endangered species]].<ref name="sustaining"/> Pests can develop a resistance to the pesticide ([[pesticide resistance]]), necessitating a new pesticide. Alternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract the resistance, although this will cause a worsening of the ambient pollution problem.

The [[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants]] banned all [[Persistent organic pollutant|persistent]] pesticides,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) |url=https://www.pops.int/ |access-date=6 October 2024 |website=Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=April 2005 |title=Ridding The World of Pops: A Guide to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants |url=http://www.pops.int/documents/guidance/beg_guide.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315065236/http://www.pops.int/documents/guidance/beg_guide.pdf |archive-date=15 March 2017 |access-date=5 February 2017 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme}}</ref> in particular [[DDT]] and other organochlorine pesticides, which were stable and [[Lipophilicity|lipophilic]], and thus able to [[Bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]]<ref name="Castro">{{cite book |last1=Castro |first1=Peter |title=Marine Biology |last2=Huber |first2=Michael E. |date=2010 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. |isbn=978-0-07-352416-0 |edition=8th |location=New York |oclc=488863548 }}</ref> in the body and the [[Biomagnification|food chain]]. and which [[Global distillation|spread throughout the planet]].<ref name="pubs.caes.uga.edu">Pesticide Usage in the United States: History, Benefits, Risks, and Trends; Bulletin 1121, November 2000, K.S. Delaplane, Cooperative Extension Service, The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences {{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs/PDF/B1121.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613142901/http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs/PDF/B1121.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-13 |access-date=2012-11-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |type=MSc Thesis |last=Quinn |first=Amie L. |year=2007 |url=http://opus.uleth.ca/handle/10133/676 |title=The impacts of agricultural chemicals and temperature on the physiological stress response in fish |publisher=University of Lethbridge |location=Lethbridge}}</ref>  Persistent pesticides are no longer used for agriculture, and will not be approved by the authorities.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> Because the half life in soil is long (for DDT 2–15 years<ref name="National Biomonitoring Program">{{Cite web |date=April 7, 2017 |title=National Biomonitoring Program |url=https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/DDT_BiomonitoringSummary.html |access-date=January 6, 2024 |website=Center for disease control and prevention}}</ref>) residues can still be detected in humans at levels 5 to 10 times lower than found in the 1970s.<ref name="cdc.gov">{{Cite web |date=August 16, 2021 |title=Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) Factsheet |url=https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/DDT_FactSheet.html |access-date=January 6, 2024 |website=Center for disease control and prevention}}</ref>

Pesticides now have to be [[Pesticide degradation|degradable]] in the environment. Such degradation of pesticides is due to both innate chemical properties of the compounds and environmental processes or conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sims GK, Cupples AM |year=1999 |title=Factors controlling degradation of pesticides in soil |journal=Pesticide Science |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=598–601 |issn=1096-9063 |doi= 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9063(199905)55:5<598::AID-PS962>3.0.CO;2-N}}</ref> For example, the presence of [[halogens]] within a chemical structure often slows down degradation in an aerobic environment.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sims GK, Sommers LE |year=1986 |title=Biodegradation of pyridine derivatives in soil suspensions |journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry |volume=5 |issue=6| pages=503–509 |doi=10.1897/1552-8618(1986)5[503:bopdis]2.0.co;2}}</ref> [[Adsorption]] to soil may retard pesticide movement, but also may reduce [[bioavailability]] to microbial degraders.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wolt JD, Smith JK, Sims JK, Duebelbeis DO |year=1996 |title=Products and kinetics of cloramsulam-methyl aerobic soil metabolism |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=324–332 |doi=10.1021/jf9503570|bibcode=1996JAFC...44..324W }}</ref>

Pesticide contamination in the environment can be monitored through [[bioindicator]]s such as [[bee]] [[pollinator]]s.<ref name=":6" />

===Economics===
{| class="wikitable floatright" style = "text-align:center"
|-
! Harm
! Annual US cost 
|-		
| Public health || $1.1&nbsp;billion
|-
| Pesticide resistance in pest || $1.5&nbsp;billion
|-	
| Crop losses caused by pesticides || $1.4&nbsp;billion
|-	
| Bird losses due to pesticides || $2.2&nbsp;billion
|-	
| Groundwater contamination || $2.0&nbsp;billion
|-	
| Other costs || $1.4&nbsp;billion
|-	
| '''Total costs''' || '''$9.6&nbsp;billion'''
|}

In one study, the human health and environmental costs due to pesticides in the United States was estimated to be $9.6 billion: offset by about $40&nbsp;billion in increased agricultural production.<ref name="Pimental">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pimentel D |year=2005 |title=Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States |journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability |volume=7 |issue=2| pages=229–252 |url=http://www.beyondpesticides.org/documents/pimentel.pesticides.2005update.pdf |doi=10.1007/s10668-005-7314-2|bibcode=2005EDSus...7..229P | s2cid=35964365}}</ref>

Additional costs include the registration process and the cost of purchasing pesticides: which are typically borne by agrichemical companies and farmers respectively. The registration process can take several years to complete (there are 70 types of field tests) and can cost $50–70&nbsp;million for a single pesticide.<ref name="Pimental" /> At the beginning of the 21st century, the United States spent approximately $10&nbsp;billion on pesticides annually.<ref name="Pimental" />