Editing Mummy (section)

== Mummification in other cultures ==

=== Africa ===
In addition to the mummies of Egypt, there have been instances of mummies being discovered in other areas of the [[African continent]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Steyn|first1=Maryna|last2=Binneman|first2=Johan|last3=Loots|first3=Marius|date=2007|title=The Kouga Mummified Human Remains|url=https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/5758/Steyn_Kouga(2007).pdf?sequence=1|journal=South African Archaeological Bulletin|volume=62|pages=3–8}}</ref> The bodies show a mix of anthropogenic and spontaneous mummification, with some being thousands of years old.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aufderheide|first1=Arthur C.|last2=Zlonis|first2=Michael|last3=Cartmell|first3=Larry L.|last4=Zimmerman|first4=Michael R.|last5=Sheldrick|first5=Peter|last6=Cook|first6=Megan|last7=Molto|first7=Joseph E.|date=1999|title=Human Mummification Practices at Ismant el-Kharab|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3822436|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=85|pages=197–210|doi=10.2307/3822436|jstor=3822436|issn=0307-5133}}</ref>

==== Canary Islands ====
[[File:MNH - Mumie Mann 1.jpg|250px|thumb|Guanche mummy in [[Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre]] ([[Tenerife]], [[Spain]]).]]
{{Main|Guanche mummies}}
The mummies of the [[Canary Islands]] belong to the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Guanches|Guanche]] people and date to the time before 14th-century Spanish explorers settled in the area. All deceased people within the Guanche culture were mummified during this time, though the level of care taken with embalming and burial varied depending on individual social status. Embalming was carried out by specialized groups, organized according to gender, who were considered unclean by the rest of the community. The techniques for embalming were similar to those of the ancient Egyptians, involving evisceration, preservation, and stuffing of the evacuated bodily cavities, then wrapping the body in animal skins. Despite the successful techniques utilized by the Guanche, very few mummies remain due to looting and desecration.<ref name="Horne">{{cite journal |last2=Ireland |first2=Robert |last1=Horne |first1=Patrick |title=Moss and a Guanche Mummy: An Unusual Utilization |journal=The Bryologist |year=1991 |volume=94 |issue=4 |page=407 |jstor=3243832 |publisher=American Bryological and Lichenological Society |doi=10.2307/3243832}}</ref><ref name="Cockburn">{{harvnb|Cockburn|Cockburn|Reyman|1998|p=284}}</ref>

==== Libya ====

The mummified remains of an infant were discovered during an expedition by archaeologist [[Fabrizio Mori]] to [[Libya]] during the winter of 1958–1959 in the natural cave structure of [[Uan Muhuggiag]].{{sfn|Cockburn|Cockburn|Reyman|1998|p=281}} After curious deposits and cave paintings were discovered on the surfaces of the cave, expedition leaders decided to excavate. Uncovered alongside fragmented animal bone tools was the mummified body of an infant, wrapped in animal skin and wearing a necklace made of ostrich egg shell beads. Professor Tongiorgi of the University of Pisa radiocarbon-dated the infant to between 5,000 and 8,000 years old. A long incision located on the right abdominal wall, and the absence of internal organs, indicated that the body had been eviscerated [[Autopsy|post-mortem]], possibly in an effort to preserve the remains.{{sfn|Cockburn|Cockburn|Reyman|1998|p=282}} A bundle of herbs found within the body cavity also supported this conclusion.<ref name=Time>{{cite news|title=Science: Older than Egypt?|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,865145,00.html|access-date=13 November 2013|newspaper=Time|date=21 December 1959}}</ref> Further research revealed that the child had been around 30 months old at the time of death, though gender could not be determined due to poor preservation of the sex organs.{{sfn|Cockburn|Cockburn|Reyman|1998|pp=281–282}}<ref name=Wan>{{cite web|title=Wan Muhuggiag|url=http://www.temehu.com/wan-muhuggiag.htm|access-date=13 November 2013}}</ref>

==== South Africa ====
The first mummy to be discovered in [[South Africa]]<ref name=DeemKhoi>{{cite web |last=Deem |first=James |title=Khoi Mummy |url=http://www.mummytombs.com/mummylocator/group/khoi.htm |access-date=13 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103051319/http://www.mummytombs.com/mummylocator/group/khoi.htm |archive-date=3 November 2013 }}</ref> was found in the [[Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve|Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area]] by Dr. [[Johan Binneman]] in 1999.<ref name=SARoutes>{{cite web|title=Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area |url=http://www.routes.co.za/naturereserves/baviaanskloof/ |publisher=SA Routes |access-date=13 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113091947/https://www.routes.co.za/naturereserves/baviaanskloof/ |archive-date=13 November 2013 }}</ref><ref name=Smith>{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Rodger |title=Ancient Communications |url=http://www.languageofthewilderness.nl/upload/Rock%20Art%20Survey%20Part%201.pdf |publisher=Vodacom SA |access-date=13 November 2013 |date=September 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113090915/http://www.languageofthewilderness.nl/upload/Rock%20Art%20Survey%20Part%201.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nicknamed Moses, the mummy was estimated to be around 2,000 years old.<ref name=DeemKhoi /><ref name=SARoutes /> After being linked to the indigenous [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] culture of the region, the National Council of Khoi Chiefs of South Africa began to make legal demands that the mummy be returned shortly after the body was moved to the Albany Museum in [[Grahamstown]].<ref name=Khan>{{cite news |last=Khan |first=Farook |title=Khoi chiefs want their mummy back |url=http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/khoi-chiefs-want-their-mummy-back-1.16968#.UoMuC_mThM4 |newspaper=Independent Online |access-date=13 November 2013}}</ref>

=== Asia ===
[[File:Momie de Jingzhou.jpg|thumb|300px|Mummy in the history museum of [[Jingzhou]]]]

The mummies of Asia are usually considered to be accidental. The decedents were buried in just the right place where the environment could act as an agent for preservation. This is particularly common in the desert areas of the Tarim Basin and Iran. Mummies have been discovered in more humid Asian climates; however, these are subject to rapid decay after being removed from the grave.

==== China ====
[[File:Xin Zhui 3.JPG|thumb|left|The mummy of [[Lady Dai]].]]
Mummies from various [[Dynasties in Chinese history|dynasties]] throughout [[China]]'s history have been discovered in several locations across the country. They are almost exclusively considered to be unintentional mummifications. Many areas in which mummies have been uncovered are difficult for preservation, due to their warm, moist climates. This makes the recovery of mummies a challenge, as exposure to the outside world can cause the bodies to decay in a matter of hours.<ref name="AW_2020">{{cite news |title=The naturally Mummified remains of a Government official from the Qing dynasty (1644-1912) was Unearthed during Construction in central China |url=https://archaeology-world.com/the-naturally-mummified-remains-of-a-government-official-from-the-qing-dynasty-1644-1912-was-unearthed-during-construction-in-central-china |access-date=24 April 2023 |work=Archaeology World |date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

An example of a Chinese mummy that was preserved despite being buried in an environment not conducive to mummification is [[Xin Zhui]]. Also known as Lady Dai, she was discovered in the early 1970s at the [[Mawangdui]] archaeological site in [[Changsha]].<ref name="Bonn-Muller">{{cite web |last=Bonn-Muller |first=Eti |title=China's Sleeping Beauty |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |date=10 April 2009 |url=http://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/mawangdui/ |access-date=9 November 2013 }}</ref> She was the wife of the Marquis of Dai during the [[Han dynasty]], who was also buried with her alongside another young man often considered to be a very close relative.<ref name="K.Hirst">{{cite web |last=Hirst |first=K. Kris |title=Mawangdui – The Tomb of Lady Dai in China |publisher=About.com |url=http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mawangdui.htm |access-date=9 November 2013 |archive-date=10 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110042132/http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mawangdui.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, Xin Zhui's body was the only one of the three to be mummified. Her corpse was so well-preserved that surgeons from the Hunan Provincial Medical Institute were able to perform an autopsy.<ref name="Bonn-Muller" /> The exact reason why her body was so completely preserved has yet to be determined.<ref name="Orbit">{{cite web| title = Meet the Lady Dai . . .| publisher = redorbit.com| date = 4 November 2004| url = http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/100340/meet_the_lady_dai____of_145bc_/| access-date = 9 November 2013}}</ref>

Among the mummies discovered in China are those termed [[Tarim mummies]] because of their discovery in the [[Tarim Basin]]. The dry desert climate of the basin proved to be an excellent agent for desiccation. For this reason, over 200 Tarim mummies, which are over 4,000 years old, were excavated from a cemetery in the present-day [[Xinjiang]] region.<ref name="Wade">{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |title=A Host of Mummies, a Forest of Secrets |newspaper=The New York Times |date=15 March 2010 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/16/science/16archeo.html?pagewanted=1&_r=0 |access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> The mummies were found buried in upside-down boats with hundreds of 13-foot-long wooden poles in the place of tombstones.<ref name="Wade" /> [[Nucleic acid sequence|DNA sequence]] data<ref name=afp>{{cite news |first=Robert J. |last=Saiget |title=Caucasians preceded East Asians in basin |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/world/20050419-101056-2135r.htm |work=The Washington Times |publisher=News World Communications |date=2005-04-19 |access-date=2007-08-20 |quote=A study last year by [[Jilin]] University also found that the mummies' DNA had Europoid genes. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050420224622/http://washingtontimes.com/world/20050419-101056-2135r.htm |archive-date=2005-04-20}}</ref> shows that the mummies had [[Haplogroup R-M420|Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)]] characteristic of western Eurasia in the area of [[East-Central Europe]], [[Central Asia]] and the [[Indus River|Indus Valley]].<ref name="bronzeageadmix">{{cite journal |author1=Chunxiang Li |author2=Hongjie Li |author3=Yinqiu Cui |author4=Chengzhi Xie |author5=Dawei Cai |author6=Wenying Li |author7=Victor H Mair |author8=Zhi Xu |author9=Quanchao Zhang |author10=Idelis Abuduresule |author11=Li Jin |author12=Hong Zhu |author13=Hui Zhou |title=Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age |journal=BMC Biology |volume=8 |issue=15 |pages= 15|year=2010 |pmid=20163704 |pmc=2838831 |doi=10.1186/1741-7007-8-15 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This has created a stir in the [[Turkic languages|Turkic-speaking]] [[Uyghur people|Uighur]] population of the region, who claim the area has always belonged to their culture, while it was not until the 10th century that Uighurs are said by scholars to have moved to the region from Central Asia.<ref name="Wong">{{cite news |last=Wong |first=Edward |title=The Dead Tell a Tale China Doesn't Care to Listen To |newspaper=The New York Times |date=18 November 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html?pagewanted=all |access-date=8 November 2013}}</ref> American Sinologist [[Victor H. Mair]] claims that "''the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively Caucasoid, or Europoid''" with "east Asian migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 years ago", while Mair also notes that it was not until 842 that the Uighur peoples settled in the area.<ref name="Celtic">{{cite news|title = The mystery of China's celtic mummies|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/a-meeting-of-civilisations-the-mystery-of-chinas-celtic-mummies-413638.html|work = [[The Independent]]|date = 28 August 2006|access-date = 28 June 2008|location=London}}</ref> Other mummified remains have been recovered from around the Tarim Basin at sites including [[Qäwrighul]], [[Yanghai]], [[Shengjindian]], Shanpula (Sampul), Zaghunluq, and Qizilchoqa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deter-Wolf |first1=Aaron |last2=Robitaille |first2=Benoît |last3=Krutak |first3=Lars |last4=Galliot |first4=Sébastien |title=The World's Oldest Tattoos |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |date=February 2016 |volume=5 |pages=19–24 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.007|bibcode=2016JArSR...5...19D |s2cid=162580662 |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01227846/file/OldestTattoos.pdf }}</ref>

==== Iran ====
{{multiple image
| footer = Remains of [[Saltmen|Salt Man]] 4 on display at Zanjan.(''left'') Head of Salt Man 1 on display at [[National Museum of Iran]] in [[Tehran]] (''right'').
| width = 170
| image1 = Saltman no4.jpg
| alt1 = Saltman 4
| image2 = Saltman1.jpg
| alt2 = Saltman 1
}}

{{Main|Saltmen}}

As of 2012, at least eight mummified human remains have been recovered from the Douzlakh Salt Mine at Chehr Abad in northwestern [[Iran]].<ref name="Aali">{{cite journal |last2=Abar |first2=Aydin |last3=Boenke |first3=Nicole |last4=Pollard |first4=Mark |last5=Rühli |first5=Frank |last1=Aali |first1=Abolfazl |last6=Stöllne |first6=Thomas |title=Ancient salt mining and salt men: the interdisciplinary Chehrabad Douzlakh project in north-western Iran |journal=Antiquity |volume=086 |issue=333 |publisher=Department of Archaeology, Durham University |location=Durham, UK |date=September 2012 |url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/aali333/ |access-date=10 November 2013 }}</ref> Due to their salt preservation, these bodies are collectively known as [[Saltmen]].<ref name="Chehr Abad">{{cite journal| title = The Chehr Abad "Salt men" and the isotopic ecology of humans in ancient Iran| journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology| date = November 2010| pmid = 20949607| doi = 10.1002/ajpa.21314| volume=143| issue=3| pages=343–354| last1 = Ramaroli| first1 = V.| last2 = Hamilton| first2 = J.| last3 = Ditchfield| first3 = P.| last4 = Fazeli| first4 = H.| last5 = Aali| first5 = A.| last6 = Coningham| first6 = R.A.E.| last7 = Pollard| first7 = A.M.}}</ref> [[Carbon-14]] testing conducted in 2008 dated three of the bodies to around 400 BC. Later [[isotope|isotopic]] research on the other mummies returned similar dates, however, many of these individuals were found to be from a region that is not closely associated with the mine. It was during this time that researchers determined the mine suffered a major collapse, which likely caused the death of the miners.<ref name="Aali" /> Since there is significant archaeological data that indicates the area was not actively inhabited during this time period, current consensus holds that the accident occurred during a brief period of temporary mining activity.<ref name="Aali" />

==== Lebanon ====
{{Main|Maronite mummies}}
In 1990, a team of speleologists uncovered eight mummies, dating back to around 1283 AD,  during a rescue excavation in the e 'Asi al-Hadath cave in the  [[Qadisha Valley]] of [[Lebanon]]. The well-preserved spontaneous mummies, including an infant named dubbed Yasmine, offer insights into Maronite villagers' lives during the Mamluk era. The grotto's high altitude and dry conditions naturally mummified the bodies. The discovery provides historical context, aligning with documented Mamluk raids in the region. Artifacts, including pottery with inscriptions, manuscripts, and clothing, suggest a Maronite community, and the mummies' burial practices parallel present-day Lebanese customs. The remains were called "Maronite mummies" because the individuals found in the 'Asi-al Hadath cave were believed to be [[Maronites]], an indigenous Christian community in the region. Some of the mummies have been transferred to the National Museum of Beirut.<ref name="cavinglebanon.com">{{Cite web |title=Publications &#124; GERSL : Speleology : Lebanon |url=https://www.cavinglebanon.com/publications/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021051141/https://www.cavinglebanon.com/publications/ |archive-date=2020-10-21 |access-date=2020-10-19}}</ref><ref name="Liban 1993 p. 58">Momies du Liban: Rapport préliminaire sur la découverte archéologique de 'Asi-l-Hadat (XIIIe siècle), GERSL, (France, 1993), p. 58.</ref>

==== Korea ====
[[File:Radiological-Diagnosis-of-Congenital-Diaphragmatic-Hernia-in-17th-Century-Korean-Mummy-pone.0099779.g001.jpg|alt= (A) Removal of clothing. (B) and (C) Very well preserved human and cultural remains. (B) is hand; (C) is straw shoes. (D) The mummy examined in this study.|thumb|A Korean mummy from the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Yi-Suk |last2=Lee |first2=In Sun |last3=Jung |first3=Go-Un |last4=Kim |first4=Myeung Ju |last5=Oh |first5=Chang Seok |last6=Yoo |first6=Dong Su |last7=Lee |first7=Won-Joon |last8=Lee |first8=Eunju |last9=Cha |first9=Soon Chul |last10=Shin |first10=Dong Hoon |date=2014-07-02 |title=Radiological Diagnosis of Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia in 17t h Century Korean Mummy |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=e99779 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...999779K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0099779 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4079512 |pmid=24988465 |doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
Mummies have been discovered in Korea that have been dated to around the 15th to 19th centuries,<ref name="Lee et al 2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=In Sun |last2=Lee |first2=Eun-Joo |last3=Park |first3=Jun Bum |last4=Baek |first4=Seung Hee |last5=Oh |first5=Chang Seok |last6=Lee |first6=Soong Deok |last7=Kim |first7=Yi-Suk |last8=Bae |first8=Gi Dae |last9=Hong |first9=Jung Won |last10=Lim |first10=Do-Sun |last11=Shin |first11=Myung Ho |last12=Seo |first12=Min |last13=Shin |first13=Dong Hoon |date=2009 |title=Acute traumatic death of a 17th century general based on examination of mummified remains found in Korea |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0940960209000351 |journal=Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger |volume=191 |issue=3 |pages=309–320 |doi=10.1016/j.aanat.2009.02.006 |pmid=19345566 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> during the [[Joseon]] period. This is thought to be because of the rise of [[Korean Confucianism|Neo-Confucianism in Korea]], which prescribed certain burial practices that created conditions favorable to mummification.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-07-25 |title=Korean child mummy holds clues to disease |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna19958902 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240629064844/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna19958902 |archive-date=29 June 2024 |access-date=2024-06-29 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref> However, this mummification was likely unintentional, and even culturally seen as ominous and undesirable.<ref name="Shin et al 2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Shin |first1=Dong Hoon |last2=Bianucci |first2=Raffaella |last3=Fujita |first3=Hisashi |last4=Hong |first4=Jong Ha |date=2018-09-13 |title=Mummification in Korea and China: Mawangdui, Song, Ming and Joseon Dynasty Mummies |journal=BioMed Research International |language=en |volume=2018 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1155/2018/6215025 |issn=2314-6133 |pmc=6158963 |pmid=30302339 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Mummification likely occurred due to a number of factors. One such factor was the airtight seal (especially as the Korean climate is unfavorable to mummification) around the bodies, which was achieved using a mix of [[Lime (material)|lime]], clay, and sand. Recreations of the sealing process found that chemical reactions with the lime possibly caused a high and prolonged release of heat, which killed bacteria in the bodies.<ref name="Shin et al 2018" /> In addition, a large amount of clothing was usually placed inside tombs, which led to a shortage of oxygen inside.<ref name="Shin et al 2018" /> Mummies buried using the lime mixture sealing technique reportedly have especially excellently preserved soft skin and hair, which has enabled medical and genetic studies to be performed.<ref name="Lee et al 2009" /><ref name="Shin et al 2018" /> Insights have been offered into the lifestyles and pathologies of Korean people during this period. Specific diseases for each individual have been identified.<ref name="Shin et al 2018" />

==== Philippines ====
Philippine mummies are called [[Kabayan Mummies]]. They are common in [[Igorot]] culture and their heritage. The mummies are found in some areas named [[Kabayan, Benguet|Kabayan]], [[Sagada, Mountain Province|Sagada]] and among others. The mummies are dated between the 14th and 19th centuries.{{Cn|date=April 2025}}

==== Siberia ====
In 1993, a team of Russian archaeologists led by Dr. [[Natalia Polosmak]] discovered the [[Siberian Ice Maiden]], a [[Scythians|Scytho]]-Siberian woman, on the [[Ukok Plateau]] in the [[Altai Mountains]] near the Mongolian border.<ref name="SiberianTimes">{{cite web| title = Siberian Princess reveals her 2,500 year old tattoos| publisher = The Siberian Times| date = 14 August 2012| url = http://siberiantimes.com/culture/others/features/siberian-princess-reveals-her-2500-year-old-tattoos/| access-date = 10 November 2013}}</ref> The mummy was naturally frozen due to the severe climatic conditions of the Siberian steppe. Also known as Princess Ukok, the mummy was dressed in finely detailed clothing and wore an elaborate headdress and jewelry. Alongside her body were buried six decorated horses and a symbolic meal for her last journey.<ref name="Adkins">{{cite web |last=Adkins |first=Jan |title=Unquiet Mummies |publisher=Nova |date=24 November 1998 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/unquiet-mummies.html |access-date=10 November 2013}}</ref> Her left arm and hand were tattooed with [[animal style]] figures, including a highly stylized [[deer]].<ref name="SiberianTimes" />

The Ice Maiden has been a source of some recent controversy. The mummy's skin has suffered some slight decay, and the tattoos have faded since the excavation. Some residents of the [[Altai Republic]], formed after the breakup of the [[Soviet Union]], have requested the return of the Ice Maiden, who is currently stored in [[Novosibirsk]] in [[Siberia]].<ref name="SiberianTimes" /><ref name="Adkins" /><ref name="Polosmak">{{cite journal |last=Polosmak |first=Natalya |title=A Mummy Unearthed from the Pastures of Heaven |journal=[[National Geographic Magazine]] |pages=80–103 |year=1994}}</ref>

Another Siberian mummy, a man, was discovered much earlier in 1929. His skin was also marked with tattoos of two monsters resembling [[griffin]]s, which decorated his chest, and three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat on his left arm.<ref name="SiberianTimes" />

=== Europe ===
[[File:Nikolaus Rungius in grave.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Mummy of [[Nicolaus Rungius]] under the floor of St. Michael Church in [[Keminmaa]], Finland]]
The European continent is home to a diverse spectrum of spontaneous and anthropogenic mummies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/solved-the-mystery-of-britains-bronze-age-mummies-48475 |title=Solved: the mystery of Britain's Bronze Age mummies |last=Booth |first=Tom |date=24 November 2015 |website=The Conversation |access-date=3 December 2015 }}</ref> Some of the best-preserved mummies have come from bogs located across the region. The Capuchin monks that inhabited the area left behind hundreds of intentionally-preserved bodies that have provided insight into the customs and cultures of people from various eras. One of the oldest mummies (nicknamed [[Ötzi]]) was discovered on this continent. New mummies continue to be uncovered in Europe well into the 21st century.

==== Bog bodies ====
{{Main|Bog body}}
[[Great Britain]], [[Ireland]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], and [[Denmark]] have produced a number of [[Bog body|bog bodies]], mummies of people deposited in [[bog|sphagnum bogs]], apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, low temperature and lack of oxygen combined to [[Tanning (leather)|tan]] the body's skin and soft tissues. The skeleton typically disintegrates over time. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent's last meal by examining [[stomach]] contents. The [[Haraldskær Woman]] was discovered by labourers in a bog in [[Jutland]] in 1835. She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal [[sarcophagus]] at the Saint Nicolai Church, [[Vejle]], where she currently remains. Another bog body, also from Denmark, known as the [[Tollund Man]] was discovered in 1950. The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died. Only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tollundman.dk/et-lig-dukker-op.asp |title=A Body Appears |work=The Tollund Man – A Face from Prehistoric Denmark |access-date=22 September 2007 |publisher=Silkeborg Public Library |year=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209034959/http://tollundman.dk/et-lig-dukker-op.asp |archive-date=9 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== Czech Republic ====
[[File:Brno CZ Crypt at the Capuchin Monastery 02.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Mummies in the [[Capuchin Crypt in Brno]]]]
The majority of mummies recovered in the [[Czech Republic]] come from underground crypts. While there is some evidence of deliberate mummification, most sources state that desiccation occurred naturally due to unique conditions within the crypts.{{sfn|Aufderheide|2003|p=192}}<ref name=Orchestrion /><ref name=AtlasCapu />

The [[Capuchin Crypt in Brno]] contains three hundred years of mummified remains directly below the main altar.<ref name=Orchestrion>{{cite web|title=Mummies and Mummified Remains |url=http://www.orchestrion.cz/mummy.htm|access-date=11 November 2013}}</ref> Beginning in the 18th century when the crypt was opened, and continuing until the practice was discontinued in 1787, the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin friars]] of the monastery would lay the deceased on a pillow of bricks on the ground. The unique air quality and topsoil within the crypt naturally preserved the bodies over time.<ref name=Orchestrion /><ref name=AtlasCapu>{{cite web|title=The Czech's Capuchin Crypt|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/czechs-capuchin-crypt|access-date=11 November 2013}}</ref>

Approximately fifty mummies were discovered in an abandoned crypt beneath the [[Church of St. Procopius of Sázava]] in [[Vamberk]] in the mid-1980s.<ref name=Agentura>{{cite web|title=Monastery of Broumov|url=http://www.broumovsko.cz/en/monastery-of-broumov/monastery-of-broumov|publisher=Agentura pro rozvoj Broumovska|access-date=11 November 2013}}</ref> Workers digging a trench accidentally broke into the crypt, which began to fill with waste water. The mummies quickly began to deteriorate, though thirty-four were able to be rescued and stored temporarily at the District Museum of the Orlické Mountains until they could be returned to the monastery in 2000.<ref name=Agentura /> The mummies range in age and social status at time of death, with at least two children and one priest.<ref name=Orchestrion /><ref name=Agentura /> The majority of the Vamberk mummies date from the 18th century.<ref name=Agentura />

The [[Klatovy]] catacombs currently house an exhibition of [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] mummies, alongside some aristocrats, that were originally interred between 1674 and 1783. In the early 1930s, the mummies were accidentally damaged during repairs, resulting in the loss of 140 bodies. The newly updated airing system preserves the thirty-eight bodies that are currently on display.<ref name=Orchestrion /><ref name=Klatovy>{{cite web|title=New exposition|url=http://www.katakomby.cz/klatovycatacombs/newexposition.aspx|publisher=Klatovské katakomby|access-date=11 November 2013}}</ref>

==== Denmark ====
[[File:Skrudstrupspigen.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from a grave mound in Denmark.]]
Apart from several bog bodies, Denmark has also yielded several other mummies, such as [[Borum Eshøj Family|the three Borum Eshøj mummies]], the [[Skrydstrup Woman]] and the [[Egtved Girl]], who were all found inside burial mounds, or [[tumuli]].

In 1875, the Borum Eshøj grave mound was uncovered, which had been built around three coffins, which belonged to a middle aged man and woman as well as a man in his early twenties.<ref name=Natmus /> Through examination, the woman was discovered to be around 50–60 years old. She was found with several artifacts made of bronze, consisting of buttons, a belt plate, and rings, showing she was of higher class. All of the hair had been removed from the skull later when farmers had dug through the casket. Her original hairstyle is unknown.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oldtiden.natmus.dk/udstillingen/bronzealderen/familien_i_borum_eshoej/kvinden_fra_borum_eshoej/language/uk/ |title=The woman from Borum Eshøj – Oldtiden |publisher=Oldtiden.natmus.dk |access-date=11 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809051012/http://oldtiden.natmus.dk/udstillingen/bronzealderen/familien_i_borum_eshoej/kvinden_fra_borum_eshoej/language/uk/ |archive-date=9 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The two men wore kilts, and the younger man wore a sheath which contained a bronze dagger. All three mummies were dated to 1351–1345 BC.<ref name=Natmus>{{cite web |title=Historical knowledge – the story of Denmark |url=https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/ |website=National Museum of Denmark |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Skrydstrup Woman]] was unearthed from a [[tumulus]] in Southern Jutland, in 1935. Carbon-14 dating showed that she had died around 1300 BC; examination also revealed that she was around 18–19 years old at the time of death, and that she had been buried in the summertime. Her hair had been drawn up in an elaborate hairstyle, which was then covered by a horse hair hairnet made by the [[sprang]] technique. She was wearing a blouse and a necklace as well as two golden earrings, showing she was of higher class.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kaul |first=Flemming |url=http://www.kulturarv.dk/1001fortaellinger/en_GB/skrydstrup |title=Skrydstrup, We know where she lived – 1001 Stories of Denmark |publisher=Kulturarv.dk |access-date=11 November 2013}}</ref>

The [[Egtved Girl]], dated to 1370 BC, was also found inside a sealed coffin within a tumulus, in 1921. She was wearing a [[bodice]] and a skirt, including a belt and bronze bracelets. Found with the girl, at her feet, were the cremated remains of a child and, by her head, a box containing some bronze pins, a hairnet, and an [[Bradawl|awl]].<ref>Hogan, C. Michael, Girl Barrow, The Megalithic Portal, editor A. Burnham 4 October 2007</ref><ref>Barber, E.W. The Mummies of Ürümchi. Macmillan, London, 1999. {{ISBN|0-393-04521-8}}</ref><ref>Michaelsen, K.K. Politikens bog om Danmarks Oldtid. Politiken, Denmark, 2002. {{ISBN|87-00-69328-6}}</ref>

==== Hungary ====

In 1994, 265 mummified bodies were found in the crypt of a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] church in [[Vác]], Hungary from the 1729–1838 period. The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by 2006 an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History in [[Budapest]]. Unique to the Hungarian mummies are their elaborately decorated coffins, with no two being exactly alike.<ref name=AtlObs1>{{cite web|title=Mummies of Vác Hungary|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/mummies-v-c-hungary|publisher=AtlasObscura|access-date=12 November 2013}}</ref>

==== Italy ====
[[File:Monks' Corridor.jpg|thumb|right|Mummies in the Friars' Corridor of the [[Catacombe dei Cappuccini]].]]
The varied geography and climatology of Italy has led to many cases of spontaneous mummification.{{sfn|Aufderheide|2003|p=193}} Italian mummies display the same diversity, with a conglomeration of natural and intentional mummification spread across many centuries and cultures.

The oldest natural mummy in Europe was discovered in 1991 in the [[Ötztal Alps]] on the Austrian-Italian border. Nicknamed [[Ötzi]], the mummy is a 5,300-year-old male believed to be a member of the [[Tamins-Carasso-Isera]] cultural group of [[South Tyrol]].<ref name=Owen>{{cite magazine |last=Owen |first=James |title=5 Surprising Facts About Otzi the Iceman |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131016-otzi-ice-man-mummy-five-facts/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016214702/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131016-otzi-ice-man-mummy-five-facts/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 October 2013 |magazine=National Geographic |access-date=11 November 2013 |date=16 October 2013}}</ref><ref name=OtziCulture>{{cite web|title=Which cultural group did Ötzi belong to?|url=http://www.iceman.it/en/node/295|publisher=South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology|access-date=11 November 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111110719/http://www.iceman.it/en/node/295|archive-date=11 November 2013}}</ref> Despite his age, a recent DNA study conducted by [[Walther Parson]] of [[Innsbruck Medical University]] revealed Ötzi has 19 living genetic relatives.<ref name=Owen />

The [[Catacombe dei Cappuccini|Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo]] were built in the 16th century by the friars of Palermo's Capuchin monastery. Originally intended to hold the deliberately mummified remains of dead friars, interment in the catacombs became a status symbol for the local population in the following centuries. Burials continued until the 1920s, with one of the final burials being that of [[Rosalia Lombardo]]. In all, the catacombs host nearly 8000 mummies.

The most recent discovery of mummies in Italy came in 2010, when sixty mummified human remains were found in the [[crypt]] of the Conversion of St Paul church in Roccapelago di [[Pievepelago]], Italy. Built in the 15th century as a cannon hold and later converted in the 16th century, the crypt had been sealed once it had reached capacity, leaving the bodies to be protected and preserved. The crypt was reopened during restoration work on the church, revealing the diverse array of mummies inside. The bodies were quickly moved to a museum for further study.<ref name=Huddersfield>{{cite web|title=Dr Stefano Vanin's forensic expertise is used to learn lessons from the extraordinary Mummies of Roccapelago|url=http://www.hud.ac.uk/research/researchcentres/aaarg/projects/the-mummies-of-roccapelago/|publisher=University of Huddersfield|access-date=11 November 2013|date=24 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111111205/http://www.hud.ac.uk/research/researchcentres/aaarg/projects/the-mummies-of-roccapelago/|archive-date=11 November 2013}}</ref>

=== North America ===

The mummies of North America are often steeped in controversy, as many of these bodies have been linked to still-existing native cultures. While the mummies provide a wealth of historically significant data, native cultures and tradition often demands the remains be returned to their original resting places. This has led to many legal actions by Native American councils, leading to most museums keeping mummified remains out of the public eye.<ref name=Spirit />

==== Canada ====
{{Main|Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi}}

[[Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi]] ("Long ago person found" in the [[Southern Tutchone]] language of the [[Champagne and Aishihik First Nations]]), was found in August 1999 by three First Nations hunters at the edge of a glacier in [[Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]]. According to the Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi Project, the remains are the oldest well preserved mummy discovered in North America.<ref name=Canada1>{{cite web|title=Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi Project Introduction|url=http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/archaeology/kwaday_dan_tsinchi/project_introduction.htm|publisher=Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resources Operations|access-date=12 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112063723/http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/archaeology/kwaday_dan_tsinchi/project_introduction.htm|archive-date=12 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> (The [[Spirit Cave mummy]] although not well preserved, is much older.)<ref name=Muska>{{cite web |last=Muska |first=D. Dowd |title=Sensitivity Run Amok May Silence the Spirit Cave Mummy Forever |url=http://nj.npri.org/nj98/02/cover_story.htm |publisher=The Nevada Journal |access-date=12 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208042517/http://nj.npri.org/nj98/02/cover_story.htm |archive-date=8 December 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Initial radiocarbon tests date the mummy to around 550 years-old.<ref name=Canada1 />

==== Greenland ====
[[File:Qilakitsoq I-1.jpg|thumb|The mummy of a six-month-old boy found in Qilakitsoq]]
In 1972, eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandoned [[Inuit]] settlement called [[Qilakitsoq]], in Greenland. The "Greenland Mummies" consisted of a six-month-old baby, a four-year-old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around 500 years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found.<ref>{{cite web |last=Deem |first=James M. |title=World Mummies: Greenland Mummies |url=http://www.mummytombs.com/mummylocator/group/greenland.htm |publisher=Mummy Tombs |date=2007-03-15 |access-date=16 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208160451/http://www.mummytombs.com/mummylocator/group/greenland.htm |archive-date=8 February 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Hart Hansen |editor1-first=Jens Peder |editor2-last=Meldgaard |editor2-first=Jørgen |editor3-last=Nordqvist |editor3-first=Jørgen |title=The Greenland Mummies |location=London |publisher=British Museum Publications |year=1991 |isbn=0-7141-2500-8}}</ref>

==== Mexico ====
[[File:Placid death.JPG|left|190px|thumb|A mummy from Guanajuato]]
Intentional mummification in [[pre-Columbian Mexico]] was practiced by the [[Aztec]] culture. These bodies are collectively known as [[Aztec mummy|Aztec mummies]]. Genuine Aztec mummies were "bundled" in a woven wrap and often had their faces covered by a ceremonial mask.<ref name=Langely>{{cite web |last=Langely |first=James |title=Notes I-3: Teotihuacan Incensarios: The 'V' Manta and Its Message|url=http://archaeology.asu.edu/teo/notes/JL/notes1_3.htm |publisher=Internet Journal for Teotihuacan Archaeology and Iconography |access-date=12 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112060653/http://archaeology.asu.edu/teo/notes/JL/notes1_3.htm |archive-date=12 November 2013 }}</ref> Public knowledge of Aztec mummies increased due to traveling exhibits and museums in the 19th and 20th centuries, though these bodies were typically naturally desiccated remains and not actually the mummies associated with Aztec culture.

Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico; this includes the [[mummies of Guanajuato]].<ref name=prof>{{cite news |title= Professor unravels secrets of the Guanajuato mummies |newspaper=US Fed News Service, Including US State News |location=Washington, D.C. |date=30 August 2007}}</ref> A collection of these mummies, most of which date to the late 19th century, have been on display at ''El Museo de las Momias'' in the city of [[Guanajuato, Guanajuato|Guanajuato]] since 1970. The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display (a mummified [[fetus]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Guanajuato: Guia para descubrir los encantos del estado |editor1=Jimenez Gonzalez |editor2=Victor Manuel |isbn=978-607-400-177-8 |year=2009 |publisher=Solaris |location=Madrid, Spain |language=es |page=103}}</ref> It was thought that minerals in the soil had the preserving effect, however it may rather be due to the warm, arid climate.<ref name=prof /><ref>{{cite news |title= Detroit Science Center: The Accidental Mummies of Guanajuato Touring Exhibition to Make World Debut in Detroit |newspaper=Pediatrics Week. |location=Atlanta |date=27 June 2009 |page=97}}</ref> Mexican mummies are also on display in the small town of [[Encarnación de Díaz]], [[Jalisco]].

==== United States ====
[[Spirit Cave mummy|Spirit Cave Man]] was discovered in 1940 during salvage work prior to [[guano]] mining activity that was scheduled to begin in the area. The mummy is a middle-aged male, found completely dressed and lying on a blanket made of animal skin. Radiocarbon tests in the 1990s dated the mummy to being nearly 9,000 years old. The remains were held at the [[Nevada State Museum, Carson City|Nevada State Museum]], though the local Native American community began petitioning to have the remains returned and reburied in 1995.<ref name=Spirit>{{cite web|title=Spirit Cave Man|url=http://museums.nevadaculture.org/new_exhibits/cc-UnderOneSky/spiritcave.htm|publisher=Nevada State Museum|access-date=12 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112081148/http://museums.nevadaculture.org/new_exhibits/cc-UnderOneSky/spiritcave.htm|archive-date=12 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Muska /><ref name=Asher>{{cite web |last=Asher |first=Laura |title=Oldest North American Mummy |url=http://archive.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/nevada.html |work=Archaeology |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |access-date=12 November 2013 |year=1996}}</ref> When the Bureau of Land Management did not repatriate the mummy in 2000, the [[Paiute-Shoshone Tribe of the Fallon Reservation and Colony|Fallon Paiute-Shoshone Tribe]] sued under the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]]. After [[DNA sequencing]] determined that the remains were in fact related to modern Native Americans, they were repatriated to the tribe in 2016.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Callaway |first1=Ewen |title=North America's oldest mummy returned to US tribe after genome sequencing |journal=Nature |date=December 2016 |volume=540 |issue=7632 |pages=178–179 |doi=10.1038/540178a |s2cid=89286088 |url=https://www.nature.com/news/north-america-s-oldest-mummy-returned-to-us-tribe-after-genome-sequencing-1.21108 |access-date=17 September 2020}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===
[[File:Robley with mokomokai collection 2.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Horatio Gordon Robley with his [[mokomokai]] collection.]]

Mummies from [[Oceania]] are not limited only to [[Australia]]. Discoveries of mummified remains have also been located in [[New Guinea]], [[New Zealand]], and the [[Torres Strait]],{{sfn|Cockburn|Cockburn|Reyman|1998|p=289}} though these mummies have been historically harder to examine and classify.{{sfn|Aufderheide|2003|p=277}} Prior to the 20th century, most literature on mummification in the region was either silent or anecdotal.<ref name=Dawson /> However, the boom of interest generated by the scientific study of Egyptian mummification lead to more concentrated study of mummies in other cultures, including those of Oceania.

==== Australia ====

The aboriginal mummification traditions found in [[Australia]] are thought be related to those found in the [[Torres Strait]] islands,<ref name=Dawson>{{cite journal |last=Dawson |first=Warren |title=Mummification in Australia and in America |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |year=1928 |volume=58 |pages=115–138 |jstor=4619529}}</ref> the inhabitants of which achieved a high level of sophisticated mummification techniques. Australian mummies lack some of the technical ability of the Torres Strait mummies, however much of the ritual aspects of the mummification process are similar.<ref name=Dawson /> Full-body mummification was achieved by these cultures, but not the level of artistic preservation as found on smaller islands. The reason for this seems to be for easier transport of bodies by more nomadic tribes.<ref name=Dawson />

==== New Guinea ====

Until the mid-twentieth century, the [[Angu]] (or Anga) people of [[Papua New Guinea]] practiced mummification by [[Smoking (cooking)|smoking]] the bodies of the dead.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20151130-one-of-most-bizarre-rituals-of-the-ancient-world|title=The smoked corpses of Aseki|first=Ian Lloyd|last=Neubauer|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref> Sites of their preserved mummies exist in the [[Morobe Province]].

==== Torres Strait ====

The mummies of the Torres Strait have a considerably higher level of preservation technique as well as creativity compared to those found on Australia.<ref name=Dawson /> The process began with removal of viscera, after which the bodies were set in a seated position on a platform and either left to dry in the sun or smoked over a fire in order to aid in desiccation. In the case of smoking, some tribes would collect the fat that drained from the body to mix with ocher to create red paint that would then be smeared back on the skin of the mummy.<ref name=Melanesia>{{cite web |last=Deem |first=James |title=Melanesia Mummies |url=http://www.mummytombs.com/mummylocator/group/melanesia.htm |access-date=15 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015193124/http://www.mummytombs.com/mummylocator/group/melanesia.htm |archive-date=15 October 2013 }}</ref> The mummies remained on the platforms, decorated with the clothing and jewelry they wore in life, before being buried.<ref name=Dawson /><ref name=Melanesia />

==== New Zealand ====
{{Main|Mokomokai}}

Some [[Māori people|Māori]] tribes from New Zealand would keep mummified heads as trophies from tribal warfare.<ref name=Maori1 /> They are also known as [[Mokomokai]]. In the 19th century, many of the trophies were acquired by Europeans who found the tattooed skin to be a phenomenal curiosity. Westerners began to offer valuable commodities in exchange for the uniquely tattooed mummified heads. The heads were later put on display in museums, 16 of them in France alone. In 2010, at a ceremony in the [[Hôtel de Ville, Rouen|Hôtel de Ville]] in Rouen, Rouen City Council returned one of the heads to New Zealand, despite earlier protests by the Culture Ministry of France.<ref name=Maori1>{{cite web|title=Mummified Maori head returned to NZ|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/mummified-maori-head-returned-to-nz-after-136-years.htm|publisher=Australian Geographic|access-date=13 November 2013|date=10 May 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204030056/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/mummified-maori-head-returned-to-nz-after-136-years.htm|archive-date=4 December 2013}}</ref>

There is also evidence that some Māori tribes may have practiced full-body mummification, though the practice is not thought to have been widespread.<ref name=Orchiston>{{cite journal |last=Orchiston |first=D. Wayne |title=The Practice of Mummification Among the New Zealand Maori |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |year=1968 |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=186–190 |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_77_1968/Volume_77,_No._2/The_practice_of_mummification_among_the_New_Zealand_Maori,_by_Wayne_Orchiston,_p_186_-_190/p1 |access-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> The discussion of Māori mummification has been historically controversial, with some experts in past decades claiming that such mummies have never existed.<ref name=Tregear>{{cite journal |last=Tregear |first=Edward |title=Maori Mummies |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |year=1916 |volume=25 |issue=100 |pages=167–168 |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/?wid=1053 |access-date=13 November 2013}}</ref>
The historical significance of full-body mummification within Māori culture is acknowledged by science, although there is still debate as to the nature of their exact mummification processes. Some mummies appear to have been spontaneously created by the natural environment, while others exhibit signs of direct human involvement. Generally, modern consensus tends to agree that there could have been a mixture of both types of mummification, similar to that of the Ancient Egyptian culture.<ref name=Orchiston />

=== South America ===
The [[South America]]n continent contains some of the oldest mummies in the world, both deliberate and accidental.<ref name="head" /> The bodies were preserved by the best agent for mummification: the environment. The Pacific coastal desert in [[Peru]] and [[Chile]] is one of the driest areas in the world and the dryness facilitated mummification. Rather than developing elaborate processes such as later-dynasty ancient Egyptians, the early South Americans often left their dead in naturally dry or frozen areas, though some did perform surgical preparation when mummification was intentional.<ref name="Field">{{cite web| title = The Earliest Mummies| publisher = The Field Museum| url = http://mummies.fieldmuseum.org/behind-the-scenes/south-american-mummies| access-date = 9 November 2013 }}</ref> Some of the reasons for intentional mummification in South America include memorialization, immortalization, and religious offerings.<ref name="Arriaza">{{cite web |last2=Hapke |first2=Russell A. |last3=Standen |first3=Vivien G. |last1=Arriaza |first1=Bernardo |title=Making the Dead Beautiful: Mummies as Art |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |date=16 December 1998|url=http://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/chinchorro/ |access-date=11 November 2013}}</ref> A large number of mummified bodies have been found in pre-Columbian cemeteries scattered around Peru. The bodies had often been wrapped for burial in finely-woven textiles.<ref name="Heaney">{{cite web |last=Heaney |first=Christopher |title=The Fascinating Afterlife of Peru's Mummies |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/fascinating-afterlife-perus-mummies-180956319/ |website=Smithsonian Magazine |date=28 August 2015 |access-date=17 March 2017 }}</ref>

==== Chauchilla Cemetery ====
{{Main|Chauchilla Cemetery}}
Chauchilla Cemetery is a [[cemetery]] that contains prehispanic mummified human remains and archeological artifacts, located {{convert|30|km}} south of the city of [[Nazca]] in [[Peru]].

==== Chinchorro mummies ====
[[File:Momia cultura chinchorro año 3000 AC.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Chinchorro mummies are the oldest artificial mummies on the earth.]]
{{Main|Chinchorro mummies}}
The [[Chinchorro mummies]] are the oldest intentionally prepared mummified bodies ever found. Beginning in [[5th millennium BC]] and continuing for an estimated 3,500 years,<ref name="Arriaza" /> all human burials within the Chinchorro culture were prepared for mummification. The bodies were carefully prepared, beginning with removal of the internal organs and skin, before being left in the hot, dry climate of the [[Atacama Desert]], which aided in desiccation.<ref name="Arriaza" /> A large number of Chinchorro mummies were also prepared by skilled artisans to be preserved in a more artistic fashion, though the purpose of this practice is widely debated.<ref name="Arriaza" />

==== Inca mummies ====
[[File:Llullaillaco mummies in Salta city, Argentina.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Children of Llullaillaco|Llullaillaco]] mummy in [[Salta Province]] ([[Argentina]]).]]
Several naturally-preserved, unintentional mummies dating from the [[Inca Empire|Incan]] period (1438–1532 AD) have been found in the colder regions of [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], and [[Peru]]. These are collectively known as "ice mummies".<ref name="Clark" /> The first Incan ice mummy was discovered in 1954 atop [[Cerro El Plomo|El Plomo Peak]] in Chile, after an eruption of the nearby volcano [[Sabancaya]] melted away ice that covered the body.<ref name="Clark">{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Liesl |title=Ice Mummies of the Inca |publisher=NOVA |date=24 November 1998 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/ice-mummies-inca.html |access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> The [[Plomo Mummy|Mummy of El Plomo]] was a male child who was presumed to be wealthy due to his well-fed bodily characteristics. He was considered to be the most well-preserved ice mummy in the world until the discovery of Mummy Juanita in 1995.<ref name="Clark" />

[[Mummy Juanita]] was discovered near the summit of [[Ampato]] in the Peruvian section of the [[Andes]] mountains by archaeologist [[Johan Reinhard]].<ref name="Hall" /> Her body had been so thoroughly frozen that it had not been desiccated; much of her skin, muscle tissue, and internal organs retained their original structure.<ref name="Clark" /> She is believed to be a ritual sacrifice, due to the close proximity of her body to the Incan capital of [[Cusco]], as well as the fact she was wearing highly intricate clothing to indicate her special social status. Several Incan ceremonial artifacts and temporary shelters uncovered in the surrounding area seem to support this theory.<ref name="Clark" />

More evidence that the Inca left sacrificial victims to die in the elements, and later be unintentionally preserved, came in 1999 with the discovery of the [[Children of Llullaillaco|Llullaillaco mummies]] on the border of Argentina and Chile.<ref name="Hall">{{cite magazine |last=Hall |first=Yancey |title=Interview: "Inca Mummy Man" Johan Reinhard |magazine=National Geographic |date=28 October 2010 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/06/0621_050621_incamummy.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050624021528/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/06/0621_050621_incamummy.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 June 2005 |access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> The three mummies are children, two girls and one boy, who are thought to be sacrifices associated with the ancient ritual of ''[[qhapaq hucha]]''.<ref name="Handwerk">{{cite magazine |last=Handwerk |first=Brian |title=Inca Child Sacrifice Victims Were Drugged |magazine=National Geographic |date=29 July 2013 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/?rptregcta=reg_free_np&rptregcampaign=20131016_rw_membership_r1p_us_se_w |access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> Recent [[biochemistry|biochemical analysis]] of the mummies has revealed that the victims had consumed increasing quantities of [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] and [[coca]], possibly in the form of [[chicha]], in the months leading up to sacrifice.<ref name="Handwerk" /> The dominant theory for the drugging reasons that, alongside ritual uses, the substances probably made the children more docile. Chewed coca leaves found inside the eldest child's mouth upon her discovery in 1999 supports this theory.<ref name="Handwerk" />

The bodies of Inca emperors and wives were mummified after death. In 1533, the [[Spanish empire|Spanish]] [[conquistador]]s of the Inca Empire viewed the mummies in the Inca capital of Cuzco. The mummies were displayed, often in lifelike positions, in the palaces of the deceased emperors and had a retinue of servants to care for them. The Spanish were impressed with the quality of the mummification which involved removal of the organs, embalming, and freeze-drying.<ref name="Heaney"/>

The population revered the mummies of the Inca emperors. This reverence seemed idolatry to the [[Roman Catholic]] Spanish and in 1550 they confiscated the mummies. The mummies were taken to [[Lima]] where they were displayed in the San Andres Hospital. The mummies deteriorated in the humid climate of Lima and eventually they were either buried or destroyed by the Spanish.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCaa |first1=Robert |last2=Nimlos |first2=Aleta |last3=Hampe Martinez |first3=Teodoro |title=Why Blame Smallpox |url=http://users.pop.umn.edu/~rmccaa/aha2004/why_blame_smallpox.pdf |date=27 January 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Pringle">{{cite web |last=Pringle |first=Harriet |title=Inca Empire |website=National Geographic |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/04/inca-empire/pringle-text/2 |url-status=dead |date=2011 |access-date=27 January 2017 |archive-date=26 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126074244/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/04/inca-empire/pringle-text/2 }}</ref>

An attempt to find the mummies of the Inca emperors beneath the San Andres hospital in 2001 was unsuccessful. The archaeologists found a crypt, but it was empty. Possibly the mummies had been removed when the building was repaired after an earthquake.<ref name="Pringle"/>