Editing Muammar Gaddafi (section)

===The "Popular Revolution": 1973–1977===

[[File:Libya 1974 e.jpg|thumb|right|Gaddafi with Romanian President [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]] in Bucharest, 1974]]

On 16 April 1973, Gaddafi proclaimed the start of a "Popular Revolution" in a speech at [[Zuwarah]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=139|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=85|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2006|3p=82|4a1=Vandewalle|4y=2008b|4p=12|5a1=Kawczynski|5y=2011|5p=22|6a1=St. John|6y=2012|6p=156}} He initiated this with a five-point plan, the first point of which dissolved all existing laws, to be replaced by revolutionary enactments. The second point proclaimed that all opponents of the revolution had to be removed, while the third initiated an administrative revolution that Gaddafi proclaimed would remove all traces of [[bureaucracy]] and the [[bourgeoisie]]. The fourth point announced that the population must form People's Committees and be armed to defend the revolution, while the fifth proclaimed the beginning of the [[Cultural Revolution in Libya]], to expunge the country of "poisonous" foreign influences.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=140|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=18|3a1=Blundy|3a2=Lycett|3y=1987|3pp=85–86|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=22|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=156}} He began to lecture on this new phase of the revolution in Libya, Egypt, and France.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=93–94}} As a process, it had many similarities with the [[Cultural Revolution]] implemented in China.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=140}}

As part of this Popular Revolution, Gaddafi invited Libya's people to found [[General People's Committee]]s as conduits for raising political consciousness. Although offering little guidance for how to set up these councils, Gaddafi claimed that they would offer a form of [[Direct democracy|direct]] [[Participatory democracy|political participation]] that was more democratic than a traditional party-based [[Representative democracy|representative system]]. He hoped that the councils would mobilize the people behind the RCC, erode the power of the traditional leaders and the bureaucracy, and allow for a new legal system chosen by the people.{{sfnm|1a1=El-Khawas|1y=1984|1p=20|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=86|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=156}} Many such committees were established in schools and colleges,{{sfnm|1a1=El-Khawas|1y=1984|1p=20|2a1=Bearman|2y=1986|2p=140}} where they were responsible for vetting staff, courses, and textbooks to determine if they were compatible with the country's revolutionary ideology.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=140}}

The People's Committees led to a high percentage of public involvement in decision making, within the limits permitted by the RCC,{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=157}} but exacerbated tribal divisions and tensions.{{sfnm|1a1=Davis|1y=1982|1p=78|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=103–104}} They also served as a surveillance system, aiding the security services in locating individuals with views critical of the RCC, leading to the arrest of [[Ba'athism|Ba'athists]], [[Marxism|Marxists]], and [[Islamism|Islamists]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=141|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=18|3a1=Blundy|3a2=Lycett|3y=1987|3p=116|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=157}} Operating in a pyramid structure, the base form of these Committees were local working groups, who sent elected representatives to the district level, and from there to the national level, divided between the [[General People's Congress (Libya)|General People's Congress]] and the [[General People's Committee]].{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=104|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=26}} Above these remained Gaddafi and the RCC, who remained responsible for all major decisions.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=64|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=163}} In crossing regional and tribal identities, the committee system aided national integration and centralization and tightened Gaddafi's control over the state and administrative apparatus.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=141}}

==== Third International Theory and ''The Green Book'' ====
{{Main|Third International Theory|The Green Book (Muammar Gaddafi)}}

In June 1973, Gaddafi created a political ideology as a basis for the Popular Revolution: [[Third International Theory]]. This approach regarded both the US and the Soviet Union as imperialist and thus rejected Western [[capitalism]] as well as Marxist–Leninist atheism.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=150|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=86–87|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3pp=157–158}} In this respect, it was similar to the [[Three Worlds Theory]] developed by China's political leader [[Mao Zedong]].{{sfn|Harris|1986|p=58}} As part of this theory, Gaddafi praised [[nationalism]] as a progressive force and advocated the creation of a pan-Arab state which would lead the Islamic and Third Worlds against imperialism.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=158}} Gaddafi saw Islam as having a key role in this ideology, calling for an [[Islamic revival]] that returned to the origins of the [[Qur'an]], rejecting scholarly interpretations and the [[Hadith]]; in doing so, he angered many Libyan clerics.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=49|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=122|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=159}} During 1973 and 1974, his government deepened the legal reliance on ''sharia'', for instance by introducing [[Flagellation|flogging]] as punishment for those convicted of adultery or homosexual activity.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=163|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=112}}

Gaddafi summarized Third International Theory in three short volumes published between 1975 and 1979, collectively known as ''[[The Green Book (Muammar Gaddafi)|The Green Book]]''. Volume one was devoted to the issue of democracy, outlining the flaws of representative systems in favour of direct, participatory GPCs. The second dealt with Gaddafi's beliefs regarding socialism, while the third explored social issues regarding the family and the tribe. While the first two volumes advocated radical reform, the third adopted a [[social conservatism|socially conservative]] stance, proclaiming that while men and women were equal, they were biologically designed for different roles in life.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=96–100|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=19|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=24|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=161–165}} During the years that followed, Gaddafists adopted quotes from ''The Green Book'', such as "Representation is Fraud", as slogans.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=162}} Meanwhile, in September 1975, Gaddafi implemented further measures to increase popular mobilization, introducing objectives to improve the relationship between the Councils and the ASU.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=165}}

{{Anchor|1975 Libyan coup attempt}}In 1975, Gaddafi's government declared a [[state monopoly]] on foreign trade.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|pp=145–146}} Its increasingly radical reforms, coupled with the large amount of oil revenue being spent on foreign causes, generated discontent in Libya,{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008b|1p=18|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=23}} particularly among the country's merchant class.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=146}} In 1974, Libya saw its first civilian attack on Gaddafi's government when a Benghazi army building was bombed.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=114}} Much of the opposition centred around RCC member [[Omar Mehishi|Umar Muhayshi]]. With fellow RCC members [[Bashir Saghir Hawadi|Bashir Saghir al-Hawaadi]] and Awad Ali Hamza, he began plotting a coup against Gaddafi.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} Libya: The role of Omar al-Meheshi in Colonel Qaddafi's revolution; his activities in the 1975 coup attempt and in developing opposition movements in Morocco and Egypt (1969 - present) |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6aaad48.html |access-date=10 February 2023 |website=Refworld |language=en |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202035935/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6aaad48.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1975, their plot was exposed and Muhayshi fled to Tunisia, eventually receiving asylum from Sadat's Egypt.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=146|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=118|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=18|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=23|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=165}} Hawaadi, Hamza, and [[Omar El-Hariri]] were arrested. Most of the other conspirators were executed in March 1976.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Anderson |first=Jack |date=13 November 1985 |title=Fighter Against Qaddafi Betrayed |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000100120018-2.pdf |access-date=2 February 2023 |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201173332/https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000100120018-2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Another RCC member, foreign minister [[Abdel Moneim al-Houni|Abdul-Munim al-Huni]], also fled to Egypt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Libya - Exiled Opposition |url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-8220.html |access-date=10 February 2023 |website=www.country-data.com |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210025158/http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-8220.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume E–9, Part 1, Documents on North Africa, 1973–1976 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve09p1/d53 |access-date=10 February 2023 |website=history.state.gov |archive-date=1 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201173332/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve09p1/d53 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the aftermath, only five RCC members remained: Gaddafi, Jalloud, [[Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr]], [[Mustafa Kharubi]], and [[Khweldi Hameidi|Kweldi al-Hamidi]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ash |first=Nigel |date=17 July 2015 |title=Cancer kills top Qaddafi aide ten days before trial verdict |url=https://www.libyaherald.com/2015/07/cancer-kills-top-qaddafi-aide-ten-days-before-trial-verdict/ |access-date=2 February 2023 |website=LibyaHerald |language=en-US |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202035222/https://www.libyaherald.com/2015/07/cancer-kills-top-qaddafi-aide-ten-days-before-trial-verdict/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=اكتشف 10 معلومات عن اللواء مصطفى الخروبي |url=https://www.afrigatenews.net/article/%D8%A5%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81-10-%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%B9%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B7%D9%81%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A/ |access-date=10 February 2023 |website=www.afrigatenews.net |language=ar |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210082436/https://www.afrigatenews.net/article/%D8%A5%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81-10-%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%B9%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B7%D9%81%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ufheil-Somers |first=Amanda |date=4 November 1986 |title=Libya's Revolution Revisited |url=https://merip.org/1986/11/libyas-revolution-revisited/ |access-date=2 February 2023 |website=MERIP |language=en-US |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202034711/https://merip.org/1986/11/libyas-revolution-revisited/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Thus, power was further concentrated in Gaddafi's hands.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=147}} This ultimately led to the RCC's official abolition in March 1977.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=165}}

In September 1975, Gaddafi purged the army, arresting around 200 senior officers, and in October he founded the clandestine Office for the Security of the Revolution.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|pp=118–119}} In April 1976, he called upon his supporters in universities to establish "revolutionary student councils" and drive out "reactionary elements".{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=148}} During that year, anti-Gaddafist student demonstrations broke out at the universities of Tripoli and Benghazi, resulting in clashes with both Gaddafist students and police. The RCC responded with mass arrests and introduced compulsory [[national service]] for young people.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=148|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=119–120|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=18|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=23}} In January 1977, two dissenting students and a number of army officers were publicly hanged; [[Amnesty International]] condemned it as the first time in Gaddafist Libya that dissenters had been executed for purely political crimes.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|pp=121–122}} Dissent also arose from conservative clerics and the Muslim Brotherhood, who accused Gaddafi of moving towards Marxism and criticized his abolition of private property as being against the Islamic ''[[sunnah]]''; these forces were then persecuted as anti-revolutionary,{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=162|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=122–123|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=29–30}} while all privately owned Islamic colleges and universities were shut down.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=148}}

====Foreign relations====

Following Anwar Sadat's ascension to the Egyptian presidency, Libya's relations with Egypt deteriorated.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=88|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=74, 93–94|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=66}} Over the coming years, the two slipped into a state of [[Cold war (general term)|cold war]].{{sfn|Bearman|1986|pp=166–167}} Sadat was perturbed by Gaddafi's unpredictability and insistence that Egypt required a cultural revolution akin to that being carried out in Libya.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=88|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=74, 93–94|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=66}} In February 1973, Israeli forces shot down [[Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114]], which had strayed from Egyptian airspace into Israeli-held territory during a sandstorm. Gaddafi's foreign minister [[Salah Busir]] was on board and allegedly targeted by Israel in retaliation for the [[Munich massacre]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=في كتابه الجديد.. محمد عبد الهادى علام يكشف بالوثائق تفاصيل جديدة ومثيرة حول اغتيال بويصير والكيخيا (1-2) |url=https://gate.ahram.org.eg/News/272873.aspx |access-date=2 February 2023 |website=بوابة الأهرام |language=ar |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202015923/https://gate.ahram.org.eg/News/272873.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Gaddafi was infuriated that Egypt had not done more to prevent the incident, and in retaliation planned to destroy the ''[[Queen Elizabeth 2]]'', a British ship chartered by American Jews to sail to [[Haifa]] for Israel's 25th anniversary. Gaddafi ordered an Egyptian submarine to target the ship, but Sadat cancelled the order, fearing a military escalation.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=114–115|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=87|3a1=Blundy|3a2=Lycett|3y=1987|3pp=82–83|4a1=St. John|4y=1987|4p=55|5a1=Kawczynski|5y=2011|5pp=66–67}}

[[File:Gaddafi 1976.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Gaddafi in 1976 with a child on his lap]]

Gaddafi was later infuriated when Egypt and Syria planned the [[Yom Kippur War]] against Israel without consulting him and was angered when Egypt conceded to peace talks rather than continuing the war.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=99–100|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=87|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=67|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=182–183}} Gaddafi became openly hostile to Egypt's leader, calling for Sadat's overthrow.{{sfn|Kawczynski|2011|p=67}} When Sudanese President [[Gaafar Nimeiry]] took Sadat's side, Gaddafi also spoke out against him, encouraging the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]]'s attempt to overthrow Nimeiry.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=167|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=185|3a1=St. John|3y=1987|3p=62|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4pp=79–80|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=191}} In 1974, Gaddafi released [[Abdul-Aziz Shennib]], a commander under [[Idris of Libya|King Idris]], from prison and appointed him Libyan ambassador to [[Jordan]]. Shennib had attended the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]] with [[Hussein of Jordan|King Hussein of Jordan]] and was tasked by Gaddafi with Hussein's assassination. Shennib instead informed Hussein of the plot and defected to Jordan.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=19 October 2011 |title=For Amal, life (re)begins at 75 |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/395340 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=Arab News |language=en |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209163127/https://www.arabnews.com/node/395340 |url-status=live }}</ref> Relations with Syria also soured over the events in the [[Lebanese Civil War]]. Initially, both Libya and Syria had contributed troops to the Arab League's peacekeeping force, although after the Syrian army attacked the [[Lebanese National Movement]], Gaddafi openly accused Syrian President [[Hafez al-Assad]] of "national treason"; he was the only Arab leader to criticize Syria's actions.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|pp=165–166}} In late 1972 and early 1973, Libya invaded Chad to annex the uranium-rich [[Aouzou Strip]].{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=181|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=187}}

Intent on propagating Islam, in 1973 Gaddafi founded the Islamic Call Society, which had opened 132 centres across Africa within a decade.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=106–107|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2pp=103–104|3a1=Blundy|3a2=Lycett|3y=1987|3pp=93, 122|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=186}} In 1973 he converted Gabonese President [[Omar Bongo]], an action which he repeated three years later with [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]], president of the [[Central African Republic]].{{sfn|Kawczynski|2011|pp=77–78}} Between 1973 and 1979, Libya provided $500&nbsp;million in aid to African countries, namely to Zaire and Uganda, and founded joint-venture companies throughout the countries to aid trade and development.{{sfn|St. John|1987|p=96}} Gaddafi was also keen on reducing Israeli influence within Africa, using financial incentives to successfully convince eight African states to break off diplomatic relations with Israel in 1973.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=107–109|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=88|3a1=St. John|3y=1987|3p=94|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=77|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=184}}

A strong relationship was also established between Gaddafi's Libya and Prime Minister [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]]'s Pakistani government, with the two countries exchanging nuclear research and military assistance. In recognition of Gaddafi's  support of [[N-deterrence|Pakistan's right to pursue nuclear weapons]] and financial support for the "Islamic bomb," Lahore Stadium was renamed [[Gaddafi Stadium]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Murtaza Razvi |date=25 February 2011 |title=A stadium called Gaddafi |newspaper=Indian Express (newspaper) |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/a-stadium-called-gaddafi/754608/0 |url-status=live |access-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407022026/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/a-stadium-called-gaddafi/754608/0 |archive-date=7 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Faridi |first=Dr. Salman |date=4 October 2020 |title=The iconic Gaddafi Stadium {{!}} Sports {{!}} thenews.com.pk |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/724066-the-iconic-gaddafi-stadium |access-date=2 October 2022 |website=[[The News International]] |language=en |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206153753/https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/724066-the-iconic-gaddafi-stadium |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=9 March 2016 |title=Gaddafi's Mental Follies and Megalomania |url=https://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/content/gaddafis-mental-follies-and-megalomania |access-date=6 February 2023 |website=Israel Defense |language=en |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206153751/https://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/content/gaddafis-mental-follies-and-megalomania |url-status=live }}</ref> Gaddafi also provided support for Pakistan in the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]; he reportedly deployed [[Northrop F-5|F-5s]] to [[Sargodha Airbase|Sargodha AFB]] and penned a strongly worded letter to [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]] accusing her of aggression against Pakistan.<ref name="Pen and Sword, Bowman">{{cite book |last1=Bowman |first1=Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QleqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 |title=Cold War Jet Combat: Air-to-Air Jet Fighter Operations 1950–1972 |publisher=Pen and Sword |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4738-7463-3 |page=112 |access-date=6 February 2023 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207214845/https://books.google.com/books?id=QleqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="THe News International">{{cite news |last=Nazar Abbas |date=26 August 2011 |title=Gaddafi is gone, long live Libya |newspaper=The News International |url=https://www.thenews.com/Todays-News-2-64753-Gaddafi-is-gone-long-live-Libya |url-status=dead |access-date=9 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809005813/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-2-64753-Gaddafi-is-gone-long-live-Libya |archive-date=9 August 2013}}</ref> Gaddafi's strong relationship with Pakistan ended after Bhutto was [[Operation Fair Play|deposed]] by [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] in 1977 as Zia distrusted Gaddafi and rejected further Libyan financing for the [[Pakistani nuclear programme|Pakistani nuclear program]] in favor of Saudi financing.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=169}}<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Colonel Gaddafi pressurises General Zia-ul-Haq to supply Libya with nuclear weapon |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/international/story/19810815-colonel-gaddafi-pressurises-general-zia-ul-haq-to-supply-libya-with-nuclear-weapon-773135-2013-11-13 |access-date=6 February 2023 |website=India Today |date=13 November 2013 |language=en |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206153750/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/international/story/19810815-colonel-gaddafi-pressurises-general-zia-ul-haq-to-supply-libya-with-nuclear-weapon-773135-2013-11-13 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Gaddafi sought to develop closer links in the [[Maghreb]]; in January 1974 Libya and Tunisia announced a political union, the [[Arab Islamic Republic]]. Although advocated by Gaddafi and Tunisian President [[Habib Bourguiba]], the move was deeply unpopular in Tunisia, and it was soon abandoned.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=100–101|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=76|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=71–72|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=183}} Retaliating, Gaddafi sponsored anti-government militants in Tunisia into the 1980s.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=72|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=183}} Turning his attention to [[Algeria]], in 1975 Libya signed, in [[Hassi Messaoud]], a defensive alliance allegedly to counter alleged "Moroccan expansionism", also funding the [[Polisario Front]] of [[Western Sahara]] in its independence struggle against [[Morocco]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=170|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=71|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=183}} Seeking to diversify Libya's economy, Gaddafi's government began purchasing shares in major European corporations like [[Fiat]] as well as buying real estate in Malta and Italy, which would become a valuable source of income during the [[1980s oil glut|1980s oil slump]].{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=114|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=199–201}}