Editing Moksha (section)

=== Evolution of the concept ===

The concept of ''moksha'', according to [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.|Daniel Ingalls]],<ref name=danielingalls/> represented one of the many expansions in Hindu Vedic ideas of life and the afterlife. In the Vedas, there were three [[Ashrama (stage)|stages]] of life: studentship, householdship and retirement. During the Upanishadic era, Hinduism expanded this to include a fourth stage of life: [[Sannyasa|complete abandonment]]. In Vedic literature, there are three modes of experience: waking, dream and deep sleep. The Upanishadic era expanded these modes to include ''turiyam'' – the stage beyond deep sleep. The Vedas suggest three goals of man: [[kama]], [[artha]] and [[dharma]]. To these, the Upanishadic era added ''moksha''.<ref name=danielingalls>Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksha", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 41–48</ref>

The acceptance of the concept of ''moksha'' in some schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] was slow. These refused to recognize ''moksha'' for centuries, considering it irrelevant.<ref name=danielingalls/> The Mimamsa school, for example, denied the goal and relevance of ''moksha'' well into the 8th century AD, until the arrival of a Mimamsa scholar named [[Kumarila]].<ref>see:
* M. Hiriyanna (1952), [[:iarchive:Mysore.Hiriyanna-The.Quest.After.Perfection|The Quest After Perfection]], Kavyalaya Publishers, pp 23–33
* John Taber, "The significance of Kumarila's Philosophy", in Roy Perrett (Ed) – ''Theory of Value'', Vol 5, {{ISBN|978-0815336129}} pp. 113–161
* Okita, K. (2008), "Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta: Interaction and Continuity", ''The Journal of Hindu Studies'', 1(1–2), pp 155–156</ref> Instead of ''moksha'', the Mimamsa school of Hinduism considered the concept of heaven as sufficient to answer the question: what lay beyond this world after death. Other schools of Hinduism, over time, accepted the ''moksha'' concept and refined it over time.<ref name=danielingalls/>

It is unclear when the core ideas of samsara and ''moksha'' developed in ancient India. Patrick Olivelle suggests these ideas likely originated with new religious movements in the first millennium BCE.<ref name="Brittanica">[[Patrick Olivelle]] (2012), ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387852/moksha "Moksha (Indian religions)"]</ref> The concepts of ''mukti'' and ''moksha'', suggests [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]],<ref name=jabvb/> seem traceable to yogis in Hinduism, with long hair, who chose to live on the fringes of society, given to self-induced states of intoxication and ecstasy, possibly accepted as medicine-men and "sadhus" by ancient Indian society.<ref name=danielingalls/> ''Moksha'' to these early concept-developers, was the abandonment of the established order, not in favor of anarchy, but in favor of self-realization, to achieve release from this world.<ref>J.A.B. van Buitenen, in Roy Perrett (Editor) –'' Theory of Value'', Volume 5, {{ISBN|0-8153-3612-8}}, Taylor & Francis, pp 25–32</ref>

[[File:Silhouette yoga.png|thumb|220px|Mokṣha is a key concept in [[Yoga]], where it is a state of "awakening", liberation and freedom in this life.<ref>see:
* [[Mircea Eliade]] (1958, Reprinted: 2009), ''Yoga: Immortality and Freedom'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691142036}}, pp 33–34;
* Sarah Strauss (2005), ''Positioning Yoga'', Berg/Oxford International, {{ISBN|1-85973-739-0}}, pp 15</ref>]]

In its historical development, the concept of ''moksha'' appears in three forms: Vedic, yogic and bhakti.

In the Vedic period, ''moksha'' was ritualistic.<ref name="jabvb" /> Mokṣa was claimed to result from properly completed rituals such as those before ''Agni'' – the fire deity. The significance of these rituals was to reproduce and recite the cosmic-creation event described in the Vedas; the description of knowledge on different levels – ''adhilokam'', ''adhibhutam'', ''adhiyajnam'', ''adhyatmam'' – helped the individual transcend to moksa. Knowledge was the means, the ritual its application.

By the middle to late Upanishadic period, the emphasis shifted to knowledge, and ritual activities were considered irrelevant to the attainment of ''moksha''.<ref name="amalinar">Angelika Malinar (2011), in [[Jessica Frazier]] (ed.), ''The Bloomsbury companion to Hindu studies'', {{ISBN|978-1-4725-1151-5}}, Chapter 4</ref> [[Yoga|Yogic]] ''moksha''<ref name="jabvb" /><ref>Knut Jacobson, in Jessica Frazier (Editor), ''Continuum companion to Hindu studies'', {{ISBN|978-0-8264-9966-0}}, pp 74–82</ref> replaced Vedic rituals with [[personal development]] and meditation, with hierarchical creation of the ultimate knowledge in self as the path to ''moksha''. Yogic ''moksha'' principles were accepted in many other schools of Hinduism, albeit with differences. For example, [[Adi Shankara]] in his book on ''moksha'' suggests:
{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
अर्थस्य निश्चयो दृष्टो विचारेण हितोक्तितः |
न स्नानेन न दानेन प्राणायमशतेन वा || १३ ||

By reflection, reasoning and instructions of teachers, the truth is known,
Not by ablutions, not by making donations, nor by performing hundreds of breath control exercises. || Verse 13 ||
</poem>
| 2=[[Vivekachudamani]]|3=8th Century AD<ref>See:
* John Richards (Translator), Vivekachudamani, {{ISBN|978-0979726743}} (2011 Edition);
* Madhavananda's [[:iarchive:vivekachudamanio00sankrich|translation of Vivekachudamani]] published in 1921, Himalayan Series 43;</ref>

}}
Bhakti ''moksha'' created the third historical path, where neither rituals nor meditative self-development were the way, rather it was inspired by constant love and contemplation of God, which over time results in a perfect union with God.<ref name=jabvb/> Some Bhakti schools evolved their ideas where God became the means and the end, transcending ''moksha''; the fruit of bhakti is bhakti itself.<ref>Klaus Klostermaier (1986), "Contemporary conceptions among North Indian Vaishnavas", in Ronald Neufeldt (Editor) – ''Karma and Rebirth Post Classical Developments'', {{ISBN|978-0873959902}}, State University of New York Press, Chapter 5</ref> In the history of Indian religious traditions, additional ideas and paths to ''moksha'' beyond these three, appeared over time.<ref>D. Datta (1888), "Moksha, or the Vedántic Release", ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'', New Series, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Oct., 1888), pp. 513–539</ref>