Editing Mitanni (section)

==Archaeology==
A concept known as "Dark Age" was applied, until recently, to the archaeological gap between the Middle and Late Bronze Age on Northern Mesopotamian sites, but Costanza Coppini considers it a "transition" instead, which can be called "Late Bronze Age 0," attested from the Tell Leilan's end caused by [[Samsu-iluna]] during his 23rd year of reign, c. 1728 BCE [Middle Chronology], to Mitanni's predominance (c. 1600-1550 BCE). These are the first traces of what, in the Late Bronze Age I, was Mitanni in historical terms, at the emergence of the third phase of [[Khabur Ware#History|Khabur ware]].<ref>Coppini, Costanza, (2022). [https://www.academia.edu/73944209/Problems%20of%20Transitions%20in%20Second%20Millennium%20BC%20Northern%20Mesopotamia%20A%20View%20from%20Tell%20Barri%20Northeastern%20Syria "Problems of Transitions in Second Millennium BC Northern Mesopotamia: A View from Tell Barri (Northeastern Syria)"], in: Studia Chaburensia 10 (2022), pp. 15, 20, 26.</ref>

The archaeological core zone of Mitanni is [[Upper Mesopotamia]] and the Trans-Tigridian region (Northeastern Iraq).

===Upper Mesopotamia===
Sites with Mitannian remains were found mainly in three regions of Upper Mesopotamia: Northeastern Syria [[Jazira Region]], Northern Syria, and Southeastern Turkey (Upper Tigris).

====Northeastern Syria (Jazira Region)====
[[File:Regions_of_the_Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria.png|thumb|290px|Jazira region in light green, Northeastern Syria.]]
Mitanni's first phase in Jazira Region features Late [[Khabur Ware]] from around 1600 to 1550 BC; this pottery was a continuity from the previous non-Mitannian Old Babylonian period.<ref name="Oselini">Oselini, Valentina, (2020). [https://www.openstarts.units.it/bitstream/10077/30235/1/12_W%26E_4_BH5_III_online.pdf "Defining the MB-LB transition in northern Mesopotamia: some archaeological considerations on the new data from the Erbil Plain and neighbouring regions"], in Costanza Coppini, Francesca Simi (eds.), Interactions and New Directions in Near Eastern Archaeology, Volume 3, Proceedings of the 5th Broadening Horizons Conference (Udine 5–8 June 2017), EUT Edizioni Università di Trieste, Trieste, p. 209, Figure 2.</ref> From around 1550 to 1270 BC, Painted [[Nuzi Ware]] (the most characteristic pottery in Mitanni times) developed as a contemporary to Younger Khabur Ware.<ref name="Oselini" /><ref>Pfalzner, Peter, (2007). [http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/2900/1/Pfaelzner_Late_Bronze_Age_Ceramic_Tradition_2007.pdf "The Late Bronze Age Ceramic Traditions of the Syrian Jazirah"], in al-Maqdissī, Mīšīl; Matoïan, Valérie; Nicolle, Christophe (eds.), Céramique de l'âge du bronze en Syrie, 2, L'Euphrate et la région de Jézireh, Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 180, Beyrouth, pp. 232, 244, and Figure 2.</ref>

Mitanni had outposts centred on its capital, [[Washukanni]], whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the [[headwaters]] of the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur River]], most likely at the site of [[Tell Fekheriye]] as recent German archaeological excavations suggest. The city of [[Taite]] was also known to be a Mitanni "royal city" whose current location is unknown.<ref name="iris.unito.it">De Martino, Stefano, 2018. [https://iris.unito.it/handle/2318/1685098#.Xo50qnLB_IV "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia"], in Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500–500 BCE, Ugarit Verlag, p. 38: "...the recent German archaeological excavations at Tell Fekheriye support the assumption that the capital of Mittani, Wassukkanni, was located there..." See also Novák (2013: 346) and Bonatz (2014).</ref>

The major 3rd millennium urban center of [[Tell Brak]] which had dwindled to a minor settlement in Old Babylonian times, saw major development {{Circa|1600}} by the Mitanni. Monumental buildings including a palace and temple were constructed on the high ground and a 40 hectare lower town developed.<ref>Oates, David. "Excavations at Tell Brak, 1983-84." Iraq, vol. 47, 1985, pp. 159–73</ref> The Mitanni occupation lasted until the site was destroyed (in two phases) between {{Circa|1300}} and 1275 BC, presumably by the Assyrians.<ref>UR, JASON, et al. "THE SPATIAL DIMENSIONS OF EARLY MESOPOTAMIAN URBANISM: THE TELL BRAK SUBURBAN SURVEY, 2003—2006", Iraq, vol. 73, 2011, pp. 1–19</ref> Two Mitanni-era tablets were found during the modern excavation. One (TB 6002) mentioned "Artassumara the king, son of Shuttarna the king".<ref name="Finkel, Irving L. 1984. pp. 187"/> Seventeen late period Mitanni tablets were found at [[Tall Al-Hamidiya]].<ref>Kessler, Karlheinz, "Neue Tontafelfunde aus dem mitannizeitlichen Taidu – Ein Vorbericht", The Archaeology of Political Spaces: The Upper Mesopotamian Piedmont in the Second Millennium BCE, edited by Dominik Bonatz, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 35-42, 2014</ref>

====Northern Syria====
The oldest tablet issued by an unknown Mitannian king was found in the site of [[Tell Hammam et-Turkman]], dated to c. 1500 BCE.<ref>de Martino, Stefano, (2024). [https://iris.unito.it/bitstream/2318/1957170/1/MittaniCuneiformDocuments.pdf "The Mittanian Cuneiform Documents"], in: The Ancient World Revisited, Studies in Manuscript Cultures, Vol. 37, De Gruyter, pp. 207- 219.</ref>
Mitanni period occupation, between 1400 and 1200 BC (radiocarbon) was found at the site of [[Tell Bazi]].<ref>A. Otto, "The Late Bronze Age Pottery of the Weststadt of Tall Bazi (North Syria)", in: M. Luciani, A. Hausleitner (Eds.), Recent Trends in the Study of Late Bronze Age Ceramics in Syro-Mesopotamia and Neighbouring Regions. Proceedings of the International Workshop in Berlin, 2 – 5 November 2006, OrA 32, Rahden/Westf., pp. 85-117, 2014</ref><ref>[https://www.vorderas-archaeologie.uni-muenchen.de/forschung/projekt_syrien/literatur_bazi/2018c_einwott_maao-bazipottery.pdf] B. Einwag and A. Otto, "The Late Bronze Age at Tall Bazi: The Evidence of the Pottery and the Challenges of Radiocarbon Dating", in: From Pottery to Chronology: The Middle Euphrates Region in Late Bronze Age Syria. Proceedings of a Workshop in Mainz (Germany), 5–7 May 2012. MAAO 1, Gladbeck, pp. 149–176, 2018</ref> Finds included a Mitanni cylinder seal and several ritual bowls. Two cuneiform tablets of the Mitanni period sealed by Mitanni ruler [[Saushtatar]], one by [[Artatama I]] were also found.<ref>[https://www.vorderas-archaeologie.uni-muenchen.de/personen/professoren/otto/publikationen/ii-83_otto-einwag_fs_autorski.pdf] Otto, Adelheid and Berthold Einwag. "Three ritual vessels from the Mittani-period temple at Tell Bazi." Stories told around the fountain. Papers offered to Piotr Bieliński on the occasion of his 70th birthday (2019): pp. 503-518</ref> There is also a record of Mitanni governance at [[Tell Hadidi]] (Azu).<ref>[https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-assyriologie-2018-1-page-149.htm] Torrecilla, Eduardo, and Yoram Cohen. "A Mittani letter order from Azu (Had 8) and its implications for the chronology and history of the Middle Euphrates region in the Late Bronze Age." Revue d'assyriologie et d'archeologie orientale 112.1 (2018): 149-158</ref>

====Southeastern Turkey (Upper Tigris)====
The (2017) salvage excavations at the [[Ilısu Dam]] in the right bank of upper [[Tigris]], southern Turkey, have shown a very early beginning of Mitanni period, as in the ruins of a temple in Müslümantepe, ritual artefacts and a Mitannian cylinder seal were found, radiocarbon-dated to 1760–1610 BC.<ref name="Ay">Ay, Eyyüp, (2021). [https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1309737 "A Hurrian-Mitanni Temple in Müslümantepe in The Upper Tigris and New Findings"], in ''Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, April 27, 2021.''</ref> Archaeologist Eyyüp Ay, in his (2021) paper, describes the second phase of the temple as an "administrative center, which had craftsmen working in its workshops as well as farmers, gardeners and shepherds, [that] might have been ruled by a priest bound to a powerful Mitannian leader."<ref name="Ay" />

===Trans-Tigridian region (Northeastern Iraq)===
To the east of upper [[Tigris]] river, Trans-Tigridian region in northern Iraq, a site now called [[Bassetki]] was excavated, which in all likelihood was the ancient town of [[Mardaman|Mardama]] with Mitanni layers from 1550 to 1300 BC, as its Phase A9 (in trench T2) may alternatively represent a Middle Bronze/Late Bronze transitional, or Proto-Mitanni occupation within 16th century BC.<ref>Pfälzner, Peter, and Hasan A. Qasim, (2017). [https://www.academia.edu/36111020/The_first_and_second_season_of_German-Kurdish_excavations_at_Bassetki_in_2015_and_2016_2017_ "The First and Second Seasons of the German-Kurdish Excavations at Bassetki in 2015 and 2016"], in ''Zeitschrift fur Orient-Archaologie'' 10, Deutsches Archaologisches Institut-Orient-Abteilung, Berlin, pp. 19, 24.</ref> In a subsequent excavation season, the deeper Phase A10 was identified as having a mix of Middle Bronze and Mitanni potteries, considered to be in the turn of the Middle to the Late Bronze Age transitional period (late 17th – early 16th century BC).<ref>Pfälzner, Peter, and Hasan A. Qasim, (2019). [https://www.academia.edu/39067043/Urban_Developments_in_Northeastern_Mesopotamia_from_the_Ninevite_V_to_the_Neo_Assyrian_Periods_Excavations_at_Bassetki_in_2017_2019_ "Urban Developments in Northeastern Mesopotamia from the Ninevite V to the Neo-Assyrian Periods: Excavations at Bassetki in 2017"], in ''Zeitschrift fur Orient-Archaologie'' 11, Deutsches Archaologisches Institut-Orient-Abteilung, Berlin, p. 46: "...In Phase A10, a characteristic mix of Middle Bronze and Mittani potteries was recorded, which leads to the dating of this phase at the turn of the Middle to the Late Bronze Age, i.e. in the transitional MB III period (late 17th/early 16th century BC).</ref>

In 2010, the 3,400-year-old ruins of [[Kemune]], a [[Bronze Age]] Mitanni palace on the banks of the Tigris in modern-day [[Iraqi Kurdistan]], were discovered.<ref name="cnn1">{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/iraq-palace-drought-scli-intl/index.html |title=Ancient palace emerges from drought-hit Iraq reservoir |publisher=CNN.com |date= |access-date=2009-06-28}}</ref> It became possible to excavate the ruins in 2018 and again in 2022 when a drought caused water levels to drop considerably. In the 1st excavation 10 Mitanni-era tablets were found, in Babylonian cuneiform written in Akkadian, bearing Hurrian names, dating to the Middle-Trans-Tigridian IA and IB periods.<ref>Puljiz, Ivana, et al., (2019). [https://www.academia.edu/42013483/A_New_Mittani_Centre_on_the_Middle_Tigris_Kurdistan_Region_Report_on_the_2018_Excavations_at_Kemune_2019_ "A New Mittani Centre On the Middle Tigris (Kurdistan Region): Report On the 2018 Excavations At Kemune"], in: Zeitschrift Für Orient-Archäologie 12, pp. 10-43. See '''p. 33:''' "...[pottery] dating to the Middle-Trans-Tigridian I A/B period..." Ralf Beutelschieb (2019), and "...Ten texts in Akkadian language and Babylonian cuneiform script from at least four rooms [of the palace]..." Betina Faist (2019).</ref> Middle Trans-Tigridian IA and IB are dated to ({{Circa|1550}}-1350 BC) and ({{Circa|1350}}-1270 BC) respectively by Peter Pfälzner (2007). In the 2nd excavation the entire city was mapped and 100 Middle Assyrian tablets were discovered. They were dated to after the city's destruction by earthquake and have not yet been published.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tübingen |first=University of |title=A 3,400-year-old city emerges from the Tigris River |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-05-year-old-city-emerges-tigris-river.html |access-date=2022-06-03 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref>

The three phases of Mitanni at [[Kurd Qaburstan]], were obtained as c. 1538–1505 BC for Phase three, with Phase two beginning c. 1512–1491 BC and ending c. 1501–1479 BC, and with Phase One beginning c. 1489–1463 BC and ending c. 1475–1435 BC. The data suggests a two century abandonment between the MBA destruction and the Mitanni re-occupation.<ref>Webster, Lyndelle C., et al. (2023).[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A587B892D599EBB4417186EFBD316CF7/S003382222300036Xa.pdf/towards_a_radiocarbonbased_chronology_of_urban_northern_mesopotamia_in_the_early_to_midsecond_millennium_bc_initial_results_from_kurd_qaburstan.pdf "Towards a Radiocarbon-Based Chronology of Urban Northern Mesopotamia in the Early to Mid-Second Millenium BC: Initial Results from Kurd Qaburstan"], in: Radiocarbon, pp. 1-16.</ref>

===Pottery and other characteristics===
At least since around 1550 BC, at the beginning of Late Bronze Age, Painted Nuzi Ware was identified as a characteristic pottery in Mitanni sites.<ref name="De Martino, Stefano, (2018)">De Martino, Stefano, (2018). [https://123dok.org/document/8yd06e1z-political-cultural-relations-kingdom-subordinated-polities-southeast-anatolia.html "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia"], in ''Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500–500 BCE'', Alter Orient und Testament 459, Ugarit Verlag, p. 44.</ref> The origin of this decorated pottery is an unsolved question, but a possible previous development as [[Aegean civilization|Aegean]] [[Kamares Ware]] has been suggested by Pecorelia (2000); S. Soldi claims that Tell Brak was one of the first centers specializing in the production of this Painted Nuzi Ware, and analyses on samples support the assumption that it was produced locally in various centers throughout the Mitanni kingdom. It was particularly appreciated in [[Upper Mesopotamia]], but appears only sporadically in western Syrian cities such as [[Alalakh]] and [[Ugarit]].<ref name="De Martino, Stefano, (2018)" />

At the height of its power, during the 15th and the first half of 14th century BC, a large region from North-West Syria to the Eastern Tigris was under Mitanni's control.<ref>Oselini, Valentina, (2020). [https://www.openstarts.units.it/bitstream/10077/30235/1/12_W%26E_4_BH5_III_online.pdf "Defining the MB-LB transition in northern Mesopotamia: some archaeological considerations on the new data from the Erbil Plain and neighbouring regions"], in Costanza Coppini, Francesca Simi (eds.), Interactions and New Directions in Near Eastern Archaeology. Volume 3. Proceedings of the 5th 'Broadening Horizons' Conference (Udine 5–8 June 2017), Università di Trieste, EUT Edizioni, Trieste, p. 206.</ref>