Editing Mircea Eliade (section)

==Work==

===The general nature of religion===
In his work on the history of religion, Eliade is most highly regarded for his writings on [[Alchemy]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Calian|first=George Florin|title=Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy|url=https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up|publisher=Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU|location=Budapest|year=2010|page=169|quote=Eliade offers a theoretical background for understanding alchemy from the perspective of the history of religion. Alchemy is a spiritual technique and can be understood not as an important moment in the history of  science but rather as a kind of religious phenomenon with its own particular rules.}}</ref> [[Shamanism]], [[Yoga]] and what he called the [[Eternal return (Eliade)|eternal return]]—the implicit belief, supposedly present in religious thought in general, that [[Religious behaviour|religious behavior]] is not only an imitation of, but also a participation in, sacred events, and thus restores the mythical time of origins. Eliade's thinking was in part influenced by [[Rudolf Otto]], [[Gerardus van der Leeuw]], [[Nae Ionescu]] and the writings of the [[Traditionalist School]] ([[René Guénon]] and [[Julius Evola]]).<ref name="pccheie"/> For instance, Eliade's ''The Sacred and the Profane'' partially builds on Otto's ''[[The Idea of the Holy]]'' to show how religion emerges from the experience of the sacred, and myths of time and nature.

Eliade is known for his attempt to find broad, cross-cultural parallels and unities in religion, particularly in myths. [[Wendy Doniger]], Eliade's colleague from 1978 until his death, has observed that "Eliade argued boldly for universals where he might more safely have argued for widely prevalent patterns."<ref>Doniger's foreword to Eliade's ''Shamanism'' (Princeton University Press edition, 1972, p. xii)</ref> His ''Treatise on the History of Religions'' was praised by French philologist [[Georges Dumézil]] for its coherence and ability to synthesize diverse and distinct mythologies.<ref>Dumézil, "Introducere", in Eliade, ''Tratat de istorie a religiilor: Introducere'' ("Religious History Treatise" – ''Patterns in Comparative Religion''), [[Humanitas publishing house|Humanitas]], Bucharest, 1992</ref>

[[Robert S. Ellwood|Robert Ellwood]] describes Eliade's approach to religion as follows. Eliade approaches religion by imagining an ideally "religious" person, whom he calls ''homo religiosus'' in his writings. Eliade's theories basically describe how this ''homo religiosus'' would view the world.<ref name="Ellwood, p.99">Ellwood, p. 99</ref> This does not mean that all religious practitioners actually think and act like ''homo religiosus''. Instead, it means that religious behavior "says through its own language" that the world is as ''homo religiosus'' would see it, whether or not the real-life participants in religious behavior are aware of it.<ref name="Ellwood, p.104">Ellwood, p. 104</ref> However, Ellwood writes that Eliade "tends to slide over that last qualification", implying that traditional societies actually thought like ''homo religiosus''.<ref name="Ellwood, p.104"/>

====Sacred and profane====
[[File:Mosesshoesspeculum.jpeg|thumb|250px|[[Moses]] taking off his shoes in front of the [[burning bush]] (illustration from a 16th-century edition of the ''[[Speculum Humanae Salvationis]]'')]]
Eliade argues that "Yahweh is both kind and wrathful; the God of the Christian mystics and theologians is terrible and gentle at once."<ref name="Eliade Myths p.450">Eliade, ''Myths, Rites, Symbols'', p. 450</ref> He also thought that the Indian and Chinese mystic tried to attain "a state of perfect indifference and neutrality" that resulted in a coincidence of opposites in which "pleasure and pain, desire and repulsion, cold and heat [...] are expunged from his awareness."<ref name="Eliade Myths p.450"/>

Eliade's understanding of religion centers on his concept of [[hierophany]] (manifestation of the Sacred)—a concept that includes, but is not limited to, the older and more restrictive concept of [[theophany]] (manifestation of a god).<ref>Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', pp. 20–22; ''Shamanism'', p. xiii</ref> From the perspective of religious thought, Eliade argues, hierophanies give structure and orientation to the world, establishing a sacred order. The "profane" space of nonreligious experience can only be divided up geometrically: it has no "qualitative differentiation and, hence, no orientation [is] given by virtue of its inherent structure."<ref name="Eliade, p.22">Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', p. 22</ref> Thus, profane space gives man no pattern for his behavior. In contrast to profane space, the site of a hierophany has a sacred structure to which religious man conforms himself. A hierophany amounts to a "revelation of an absolute reality, opposed to the non-reality of the vast surrounding expanse."<ref name="Eliade, p.21">Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', p. 21</ref> As an example of "[[hierotopy|sacred space]]" demanding a certain response from man, Eliade gives the story of [[Moses]] halting before [[Yahweh]]'s manifestation as a [[burning bush]] (''[[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]'' 3:5) and taking off his shoes.<ref>Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', p. 20</ref>

====Origin myths and sacred time====
Eliade notes that, in traditional societies, myth represents the absolute truth about primordial time.<ref name="Eliade, p.23">Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 23</ref> According to the myths, this was the time when the Sacred first appeared, establishing the world's structure—myths claim to describe the primordial events that made society and the natural world be that which they are. Eliade argues that all myths are, in that sense, origin myths: "myth, then, is always an account of a ''creation.''"<ref>Eliade, ''Myth and Reality'', p. 6</ref>

Many traditional societies believe that the power of a thing lies in its origin.<ref>Eliade, ''Myth and Reality'', p. 15</ref> If origin is equivalent to power, then "it is the first manifestation of a thing that is significant and valid"<ref>Eliade, ''Myth and Reality'', p. 34</ref> (a thing's reality and value therefore lies only in its first appearance).

According to Eliade's theory, only the Sacred has value, only a thing's first appearance has value and, therefore, only the Sacred's first appearance has value. Myth describes the Sacred's first appearance; therefore, the mythical age is sacred time,<ref name="Eliade, p.23"/> the only time of value: "primitive man was interested only in the ''beginnings'' [...] to him it mattered little what had happened to himself, or to others like him, in more or less distant times."<ref name="Eliade, p.44">Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 44</ref> Eliade postulated this as the reason for the "[[nostalgia]] for origins" that appears in many religions, the desire to return to a primordial [[Paradise]].<ref name="Eliade, p.44"/>

====Eternal return and "Terror of history"====
{{Main|Eternal return (Eliade)}}
Eliade argues that traditional man attributes no value to the linear march of historical events: only the events of the mythical age have value. To give his own life value, traditional man performs myths and rituals. Because the Sacred's essence lies only in the mythical age, only in the Sacred's first appearance, any later appearance is actually the first appearance; by recounting or re-enacting mythical events, myths and rituals "re-actualize" those events.<ref>Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', pp. 68–69</ref> Eliade often uses the term "[[archetype]]s" to refer to the mythical models established by the Sacred, although Eliade's use of the term should be distinguished from the use of the term in [[Jungian psychology]].<ref>Leeming, "Archetypes"</ref>

Thus, argues Eliade, religious behavior does not only commemorate, but also participates in, sacred events:

<blockquote>In ''imitating'' the exemplary acts of a god or of a mythical hero, or simply by recounting their adventures, the man of an archaic society detaches himself from profane time and magically re-enters the Great Time, the sacred time.<ref name="Eliade, p.23"/></blockquote>

Eliade called this concept the "[[Eternal return (Eliade)|eternal return]]" (distinguished from the [[Eternal return|philosophical concept of "eternal return"]]). Wendy Doniger noted that Eliade's theory of the eternal return "has become a truism in the study of religions."<ref name="Doniger Forward p.xiii"/>

Eliade attributes the well-known "cyclic" vision of time in ancient thought to belief in the eternal return. For instance, the New Year ceremonies among the [[Mesopotamia]]ns, the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], and other [[Ancient Near East|Near Eastern]] peoples re-enacted their [[Cosmogony|cosmogonic]] myths. Therefore, by the logic of the eternal return, each New Year ceremony ''was'' the beginning of the world for these peoples. According to Eliade, these peoples felt a need to return to the Beginning at regular intervals, turning time into a circle.<ref>Eliade, ''Myth and Reality'', pp. 47–49</ref>

Eliade argues that yearning to remain in the mythical age causes a "terror of history": traditional man desires to escape the linear succession of events (which, Eliade indicated, he viewed as empty of any inherent value or sacrality). Eliade suggests that the abandonment of mythical thought and the full acceptance of linear, historical time, with its "terror", is one of the reasons for modern man's anxieties.<ref>Eliade, ''The Myth of the Eternal Return'', Chapter 4; ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', pp. 231–245</ref> Traditional societies escape this anxiety to an extent, as they refuse to completely acknowledge historical time. But the return to the sources involved an apocalyptic experience. [[Doina Ruști]], analyzing the story ''The Old Man and The Bureaucrats'' (''Pe strada Mântuleasa''), says  The memories<ref>{{Cite book|last=Doina|first=Ruști|title=Dicționar de simboluri din opera lui Mircea Eliade|publisher=Corint|year=1997|location=Bucuresti|pages=90|language=ro}}</ref> create the chaos, because "the myth makes irruption in a world in tormented birth, without memory, and transform all in a labyrinth".

====''Coincidentia oppositorum''====
Eliade claims that many myths, rituals, and mystical experiences involve a "coincidence of opposites", or ''[[coincidentia oppositorum]]''. In fact, he calls the ''<ref>coincidentia</ref> oppositorum'' "the mythical pattern."<ref>In ''Patterns in Comparative Religion'' (p. 419), Eliade gives a section about the ''coincidentia oppositorum'' the title "Coincidentia Oppositorum—THE MYTHICAL PATTERN". Beane and Doty chose to retain this title when excerpting this section in ''Myths, Rites, Symbols'' (p. 449).</ref> Many myths, Eliade notes, "present us with a twofold revelation":
<blockquote>they express on the one hand the diametrical opposition of two divine figures sprung from one and the same principle and destined, in many versions, to be reconciled at some ''illud tempus'' of eschatology, and on the other, the ''coincidentia oppositorum'' in the very nature of the divinity, which shows itself, by turns or even simultaneously, benevolent and terrible, creative and destructive, solar and serpentine, and so on (in other words, actual and potential).<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Rites, Symbols'', p. 449</ref></blockquote>
The reconciling opposites „involves imitating gestures or situations from before the establishment of history, by recovering the initial state, by regenerating time and the world, but also by mystical initiation."<ref>Doina Ruști, Dictionary of symbols from Eliade's work, Corint, 1997</ref>
Eliade argues that "Yahweh is both kind and wrathful; the God of the Christian mystics and theologians is terrible and gentle at once."<ref name="Eliade Myths p.450"/> He also thought that the Indian and Chinese mystic tried to attain "a state of perfect indifference and neutrality" that resulted in a coincidence of opposites in which "pleasure and pain, desire and repulsion, cold and heat [...] are expunged from his awareness".<ref name="Eliade Myths p.450"/>

According to Eliade, the ''coincidentia oppositorum'''s appeal lies in "man's deep dissatisfaction with his actual situation, with what is called the human condition".<ref name="Eliade Myths p.439"/> In many mythologies, the end of the mythical age involves a "fall", a fundamental "[[Ontology|ontological]] change in the structure of the World".<ref name="Eliade Myths p.440">Eliade, ''Myths, Rites, Symbols'', p. 440</ref> Because the ''coincidentia oppositorum'' is a contradiction, it represents a denial of the world's current logical structure, a reversal of the "fall".

Also, traditional man's dissatisfaction with the post-mythical age expresses itself as a feeling of being "torn and separate".<ref name="Eliade Myths p.439">Eliade, ''Myths, Rites, Symbols'', p. 439</ref> In many mythologies, the lost mythical age was a Paradise, "a paradoxical state in which the contraries exist side by side without conflict, and the multiplications form aspects of a mysterious Unity".<ref name="Eliade Myths p.440"/> The ''coincidentia oppositorum'' expresses a wish to recover the lost unity of the mythical Paradise, for it presents a reconciliation of opposites and the unification of diversity:
<blockquote>On the level of pre-systematic thought, the mystery of totality embodies man's endeavor to reach a perspective in which the contraries are abolished, the Spirit of Evil reveals itself as a stimulant of Good, and Demons appear as the night aspect of the Gods.<ref name="Eliade Myths p.440"/></blockquote>

===Exceptions to the general nature===
[[File:Meister von Torcello 001.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Last Judgment]] (detail) in the 12th century [[Byzantine art|Byzantine mosaic]] at [[Torcello]]]]
Eliade acknowledges that not all religious behavior has all the attributes described in his theory of sacred time and the eternal return. The [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]], Jewish, Christian, and [[Muslim]] traditions embrace linear, historical time as sacred or capable of sanctification, while some [[Eastern religions|Eastern traditions]] largely reject the notion of sacred time, seeking escape from the [[wheel of time|cycles of time]].

Because they contain rituals, Judaism and Christianity necessarily—Eliade argues—retain a sense of cyclic time:
<blockquote>''by the very fact that it is a religion'', Christianity had to keep at least one mythical aspect—[[Liturgy|liturgical]] Time, that is, the periodic rediscovery of the ''illud tempus'' of the beginnings [and] an ''imitation'' of the Christ as ''exemplary pattern''.<ref>Eliade, ''Myth and Reality'', p. 169</ref></blockquote>

However, Judaism and Christianity do not see time as a circle endlessly turning on itself; nor do they see such a cycle as desirable, as a way to participate in the Sacred. Instead, these religions embrace the concept of linear history progressing toward the [[Messianic Age]] or the [[Last Judgment]], thus initiating the idea of "progress" (humans are to work for a Paradise in the future).<ref>Eliade, ''Myth and Reality'', pp. 64–65, 169</ref> However, Eliade's understanding of Judaeo-Christian [[eschatology]] can also be understood as cyclical in that the "end of time" is a return to God: "The final catastrophe will put an end to history, hence will restore man to eternity and beatitude."<ref>Eliade, ''The Myth of the Eternal Return'', p. 124</ref>

The pre-[[Islam]]ic [[Persian Empire|Persian]] religion of Zoroastrianism, which made a notable "contribution to the religious formation of the West",<ref name="Eliade v.1 p.302">Eliade, ''A History of Religious Ideas'', vol. 1, p. 302</ref> also has a linear sense of time; although, according to Eliade, the Hebrews' linear sense of time predates their being influenced by Zoroastrianism.<ref name="Eliade v.1 p.302"/> In fact, Eliade identifies the Hebrews, not the Zoroastrians, as the first culture to truly "valorize" historical time, the first to see all major historical events as episodes in a continuous divine revelation.<ref>Eliade, ''A History of Religious Ideas'', vol. 1, p. 356</ref> However, Eliade argues, Judaism elaborated its mythology of linear time by adding elements borrowed from Zoroastrianism—including [[Dualistic cosmology#Moral dualism|ethical dualism]], a savior figure, the future resurrection of the body, and the idea of cosmic progress toward "the final triumph of Good."<ref name="Eliade v.1 p.302"/>

The [[Indian religions]] of the East generally retain a cyclic view of time—for instance, the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] doctrine of ''[[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpas]]''. According to Eliade, most religions that accept the cyclic view of time also embrace it: they see it as a way to return to the sacred time. However, in [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and some forms of Hinduism, the Sacred lies outside the flux of the material world (called ''[[Maya (illusion)|maya]]'', or "illusion"), and one can only reach it by escaping from the cycles of time.<ref>Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', p. 109</ref> Because the Sacred lies outside cyclic time, which conditions humans, people can only reach the Sacred by escaping the [[human condition]]. According to Eliade, [[Yoga]] techniques aim at escaping the limitations of the body, allowing the soul (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|atman]]'') to rise above ''maya'' and reach the Sacred (''[[nirvana]]'', ''[[moksha]]''). Imagery of "freedom", and of death to one's old body and rebirth with a new body, occur frequently in Yogic texts, representing escape from the bondage of the temporal human condition.<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Rites, Symbols'', Volume 2, pp. 312–314</ref> Eliade discusses these themes in detail in ''Yoga: Immortality and Freedom''.

===Symbolism of the Center===
{{Main|Axis mundi}}
[[File:Yggdrasil AM 738 4to.jpg|thumb|150px|The [[World Tree|Cosmic Tree]] ''[[Yggdrasill]]'', as depicted in a 17th-century Icelandic miniature]]
A recurrent theme in Eliade's myth analysis is the ''[[axis mundi]]'', the Center of the World. According to Eliade, the Cosmic Center is a necessary corollary to the division of reality into the Sacred and the profane. The Sacred contains all value, and the world gains purpose and meaning only through hierophanies:
<blockquote>In the homogeneous and infinite expanse, in which no point of reference is possible and hence no orientation is established, the [[hierophany]] reveals an absolute fixed point, a center.<ref name="Eliade, p.21"/></blockquote>

Because profane space gives man no orientation for his life, the Sacred must manifest itself in a hierophany, thereby establishing a sacred site around which man can orient himself. The site of a hierophany establishes a "fixed point, a center".<ref name="Eliade, p.21"/> This Center abolishes the "homogeneity and relativity of profane space",<ref name="Eliade, p.22"/> for it becomes "the central axis for all future orientation".<ref name="Eliade, p.21"/>

A manifestation of the Sacred in profane space is, by definition, an example of something breaking through from one plane of existence to another. Therefore, the initial hierophany that establishes the Center must be a point at which there is contact between different planes—this, Eliade argues, explains the frequent mythical imagery of a [[World Tree|Cosmic Tree]] or Pillar joining Heaven, Earth, and the [[underworld]].<ref>Eliade, ''Shamanism'', pp. 259–260</ref>

Eliade noted that, when traditional societies found a new territory, they often perform consecrating rituals that reenact the hierophany that established the center and founded the world.<ref>Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', pp. 32–36</ref> In addition, the designs of traditional buildings, especially temples, usually imitate the mythical image of the ''axis mundi'' joining the different cosmic levels. For instance, the [[Babylon]]ian [[ziggurat]]s were built to resemble cosmic mountains passing through the heavenly spheres, and the rock of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] was supposed to reach deep into the ''[[tehom]]'', or primordial waters.<ref>Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', pp. 40, 42</ref>

According to the logic of the [[Eternal return (Eliade)|eternal return]], the site of each such symbolic Center will actually be the Center of the World:
<blockquote>It may be said, in general, that the majority of the sacred and ritual trees that we meet with in the history of religions are only replicas, imperfect copies of this exemplary archetype, the Cosmic Tree. Thus, all these sacred trees are thought of as situated at the Centre of the World, and all the ritual trees or posts [...] are, as it were, magically projected into the Centre of the World.<ref>Eliade, ''Images and Symbols'', p. 44</ref></blockquote>
According to Eliade's interpretation, religious man apparently feels the need to live not only near, but ''at'', the mythical Center as much as possible, given that the center is the point of communication with the Sacred.<ref>Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', p. 43</ref>

Thus, Eliade argues, many traditional societies share common outlines in their mythical geographies. In the middle of the known world is the sacred Center, "a place that is sacred above all";<ref>Eliade, ''Images and Symbols'', p. 39</ref> this Center anchors the established order.<ref name="Eliade, p.22"/> Around the sacred Center lies the known world, the realm of established order; and beyond the known world is a chaotic and dangerous realm, "peopled by ghosts, demons, [and] 'foreigners' (who are [identified with] demons and the souls of the dead)".<ref>Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', p. 29</ref> According to Eliade, traditional societies place their known world at the Center because (from their perspective) their known world is the realm that obeys a recognizable order, and it therefore must be the realm in which the Sacred manifests itself; the regions beyond the known world, which seem strange and foreign, must lie far from the center, outside the order established by the Sacred.<ref>Eliade, ''Images and Symbols'', pp. 39–40; Eliade, ''The Sacred and the Profane'', p. 30</ref>

===The High God===
{{See also|Sky father|Deus otiosus}}
According to some "evolutionistic" theories of religion, especially that of [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], cultures naturally progress from [[animism]] and [[polytheism]] to [[monotheism]].<ref>Eliade, "The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", pp. 157, 161</ref> According to this view, more advanced cultures should be more monotheistic, and more primitive cultures should be more polytheistic. However, many of the most "primitive", pre-agricultural societies believe in a supreme [[Sky father|sky-god]].<ref>Eliade, ''Myth and Reality'', p. 93; ''Patterns in Comparative Religion'', pp. 38–40, 54–58</ref> Thus, according to Eliade, post-19th-century scholars have rejected Tylor's theory of evolution from [[animism]].<ref>Eliade, "The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", p. 161</ref> Based on the discovery of supreme sky-gods among "primitives", Eliade suspects that the earliest humans worshiped a heavenly Supreme Being.<ref>Eliade, ''Patterns in Comparative Religion'', pp. 38, 54; ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 176</ref> In ''Patterns in Comparative Religion'', he writes, "The most popular prayer in the world is addressed to 'Our Father who art in heaven.' It is possible that man's earliest prayers were addressed to the same heavenly father."<ref>Eliade, ''Patterns in Comparative Religion'', p. 38</ref>

However, Eliade disagrees with [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]], who thought the earliest form of religion was a strict monotheism. Eliade dismisses this theory of "primordial monotheism" (''Urmonotheismus'') as "rigid" and unworkable.<ref>Eliade, "The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", p. 162; see also Eliade, ''Patterns in Comparative Religion'', pp. 54–58</ref> "At most," he writes, "this schema [Schmidt's theory] renders an account of human [religious] evolution since the [[Paleolithic]] era".<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 176</ref> If an ''Urmonotheismus'' did exist, Eliade adds, it probably differed in many ways from the conceptions of God in many modern monotheistic faiths: for instance, the primordial High God could manifest himself as an animal without losing his status as a celestial Supreme Being.<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', pp. 176–177</ref>

According to Eliade, heavenly Supreme Beings are actually less common in more advanced cultures.<ref>Eliade, ''Patterns in Comparative Religion'', pp. 54–55</ref> Eliade speculates that the discovery of agriculture brought a host of [[Fertility god|fertility gods and goddesses]] into the forefront, causing the celestial Supreme Being to fade away and eventually vanish from many ancient religions.<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 138</ref> Even in primitive hunter-gatherer societies, the High God is a vague, distant figure, dwelling high above the world.<ref>See Eliade, ''Patterns in Comparative Religion'', pp. 54–56</ref> Often he has no [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] and receives prayer only as a last resort, when all else has failed.<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', pp. 134–136; ''The Myth of the Eternal Return'', p. 97</ref> Eliade calls the distant High God a ''[[deus otiosus]]'' ("idle god").<ref>Eliade, ''Myth and Reality'', pp. 93–94</ref>

In belief systems that involve a ''deus otiosus'', the distant High God is believed to have been closer to humans during the mythical age. After finishing his works of creation, the High God "forsook the earth and withdrew into the highest heaven".<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 134</ref> This is an example of the Sacred's distance from "profane" life, life lived after the mythical age: by escaping from the profane condition through religious behavior, figures such as the [[shaman]] return to the conditions of the mythical age, which include nearness to the High God ("by his ''flight'' or ascension, the shaman [...] meets the God of Heaven face to face and speaks directly to him, as man sometimes did ''in illo tempore''").<ref name="Eliade, p.66">Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 66</ref> The shamanistic behaviors surrounding the High God are a particularly clear example of the eternal return.

===Shamanism===
[[File:Schamanin während einer Kamlanie-Zeremonie am Feuer in Kysyl.jpg|thumb|260px|A [[shaman]] performing a ceremonial in [[Tuva]]]]
Eliade's scholarly work includes a study of [[shamanism]], ''[[Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy]]'', a survey of shamanistic practices in different areas. His ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'' also addresses shamanism in some detail.

In ''Shamanism'', Eliade argues for a restrictive use of the word ''shaman'': it should not apply to just any [[Magician (paranormal)|magician]] or [[medicine man]], as that would make the term redundant; at the same time, he argues against restricting the term to the practitioners of the sacred of [[Siberia]] and Central Asia (it is from one of the titles for this function, namely, ''šamán'', considered by Eliade to be of [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] origin, that the term itself was introduced into Western languages).<ref>Eliade, ''Shamanism'', pp. 3–4</ref> Eliade defines a shaman as follows:
<blockquote>he is believed to cure, like all doctors, and to perform miracles of the [[fakir]] type, like all magicians [...] But beyond this, he is a [[psychopomp]], and he may also be a priest, [[Mysticism|mystic]], and poet.<ref name="Eliade, Shamanism, p.4">Eliade, ''Shamanism'', p. 4</ref></blockquote>

If we define shamanism this way, Eliade claims, we find that the term covers a collection of phenomena that share a common and unique "structure" and "history."<ref name="Eliade, Shamanism, p.4"/> (When thus defined, shamanism tends to occur in its purest forms in [[Hunter-gatherer|hunting]] and [[Herding|pastoral]] societies like those of Siberia and Central Asia, which revere a celestial High God "on the way to becoming a ''[[deus otiosus]]''."<ref>Eliade, ''Shamanism'', pp. 6, 8–9</ref> Eliade takes the shamanism of those regions as his most representative example.)

In his examinations of shamanism, Eliade emphasizes the shaman's attribute of regaining man's condition before the "Fall" out of sacred time: "The most representative mystical experience of the archaic societies, that of shamanism, betrays the ''Nostalgia for Paradise'', the desire to recover the state of freedom and beatitude before 'the Fall'."<ref name="Eliade, p.66"/> This concern—which, by itself, is the concern of almost all religious behavior, according to Eliade—manifests itself in specific ways in shamanism.

====Death, resurrection and secondary functions====
According to Eliade, one of the most common shamanistic themes is the shaman's supposed death and [[resurrection]]. This occurs in particular during his [[initiation]].<ref>See, for example, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', pp. 82–83</ref> Often, the procedure is supposed to be performed by spirits who dismember the shaman and strip the flesh from his bones, then put him back together and revive him. In more than one way, this death and resurrection represents the shaman's elevation above human nature.

First, the shaman dies so that he can rise above human nature on a quite literal level. After he has been dismembered by the initiatory spirits, they often replace his old organs with new, magical ones (the shaman dies to his profane self so that he can rise again as a new, sanctified, being).<ref>Eliade, ''Shamanism'', p. 43</ref> Second, by being reduced to his bones, the shaman experiences rebirth on a more symbolic level: in many hunting and herding societies, the bone represents the source of life, so reduction to a skeleton "is equivalent to re-entering the womb of this primordial life, that is, to a complete renewal, a mystical rebirth".<ref>Eliade, ''Shamanism'', p. 63</ref> Eliade considers this return to the source of life essentially equivalent to the eternal return.<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 84</ref>

Third, the shamanistic phenomenon of repeated death and resurrection also represents a transfiguration in other ways. The shaman dies not once but many times: having died during initiation and risen again with new powers, the shaman can send his spirit out of his body on errands; thus, his whole career consists of repeated deaths and resurrections. The shaman's new ability to die and return to life shows that he is no longer bound by the laws of profane time, particularly the law of death: "the ability to 'die' and come to life again [...] denotes that [the shaman] has surpassed the human condition."<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 102</ref>

Having risen above the human condition, the shaman is not bound by the flow of history. Therefore, he enjoys the conditions of the mythical age. In many myths, humans can speak with animals; and, after their initiations, many shamans claim to be able to communicate with animals. According to Eliade, this is one manifestation of the shaman's return to "the ''illud tempus'' described to us by the paradisiac myths."<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 63</ref>

The shaman can descend to the underworld or ascend to heaven, often by climbing the [[World Tree]], the cosmic pillar, the sacred ladder, or some other form of the ''[[axis mundi]]''.<ref>Eliade, ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', p. 64</ref> Often, the shaman will ascend to heaven to speak with the High God. Because the gods (particularly the High God, according to Eliade's ''deus otiosus'' concept) were closer to humans during the mythical age, the shaman's easy communication with the High God represents an abolition of history and a return to the mythical age.<ref name="Eliade, p.66"/>

Because of his ability to communicate with the gods and descend to the land of the dead, the shaman frequently functions as a [[psychopomp]] and a [[medicine man]].<ref name="Eliade, Shamanism, p.4"/>