Editing Marcus Junius Brutus (section)

==''Liberatores''{{'}} civil war==
{{Main|Liberators' civil war}}
[[File:Ides of March coin (2).jpg|thumb|[[Ides of March coin]] minted by Brutus in 43–42&nbsp;BC. The daggers and ''[[Pileus (hat)|pileus]]'' celebrate the assassination of Julius Caesar.{{sfn|Crawford|1974|p=518}}]]

=== Preparations in the East ===
The senate assigned Brutus to Crete (and Cassius to Cyrene) in early August, both small and insignificant provinces with few troops.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=140}} Later in the month, Brutus left Italy for the east.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=142}} He was acclaimed in Greece by the younger Romans there and recruited many supporters from the young Roman aristocrats being educated in Athens.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=144–146}} He discussed with the governor of Macedonia handing the province over to him; while Antony in Rome allocated the province to his brother Gaius, Brutus travelled north with an army to Macedonia, buoyed by funds collected by two outgoing ''quaestores'' at the end of the year.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=243}}

In January 43, Brutus entered Macedonia with his army, and took Antony's brother Gaius captive. At the same time, the political situation in Rome turned against Antony, as Cicero was delivering his [[Phillipics]]. Over the next few months, Brutus spent his time in Greece building strength. In Italy, the senate at Cicero's urging fought against Antony at the battle of Mutina, where both consuls ([[Aulus Hirtius|Hirtius]] and [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus|Pansa]]) were killed.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=243}} During this time, the republicans enjoyed the support of the senate, which confirmed Brutus and Cassius' commands in Macedonia and Syria, respectively.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=150}}{{efn|Cicero made the proposal, "referring to Brutus by his official name", {{quote|"that as proconsul Quintus Caepio Brutus shall protect, defend, guard, and keep safe Macedonia, Illyricum, and the whole of Greece; that he will command the army which he himself has established and raised... and see to it that, together with his army, he be as close as possible to Italy".}}
{{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=150}}.}}

Dolabella switched sides in 43, killing Trebonius in Syria and raising an army against Cassius.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=243}} Brutus decamped for Syria in early May, writing letters to Cicero criticising Cicero's policy to support Octavian against Antony;{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=161}} at the same time, the senate had declared Antony an enemy of the state.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=243–244}} In late May, Lepidus (married to Brutus' half-sister) – possibly forced by his own troops – joined Antony against Cicero, Octavian, and the senate, leading Brutus to write to Cicero asking him to protect both his own and Lepidus' family.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=244}} The next month, Brutus' wife Porcia died.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=244}}

Cicero's policy of attempting to unify Octavian with the senate against Antony and Lepidus started to fail in May; he requested Brutus to take his forces and march to his aid in Italy in mid-June.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=166}} It seems that Brutus and Cassius in the east had substantial communications delays and failed to recognise that Antony had not been defeated, contra earlier assurances after Mutina.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=166}}{{efn|"Evidently there was little understanding in the east of the effect of Lepidus' defection [by 30 May 43] and the potential crisis awaiting Rome; likewise, in the west, the problem of Dolabella [who was posing an immediate threat to Cassius and Brutus' forces] was remote and incomprehensible". {{harvnb|Tempest|2017|p=168}}.}} Over the next few months from June to 19 August, Octavian marched on Rome and forced his election as consul.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=244–245}} Shortly afterwards, Octavian and his colleague, [[Quintus Pedius]], passed the ''[[lex Pedia]]'' making the murder of a dictator retroactively illegal, and convicting Brutus and the assassins ''in absentia''.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=169}} The new consuls also lifted the senate's decrees against Lepidus and Antony, clearing the way for a general Caesarian rapprochement.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=170}} Under that law, Decimus was killed in the west some time in autumn, defeating the republican cause in the west;{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=169}} by 27 November 43, the Caesarians had fully settled their differences and passed the ''[[lex Titia]]'', forming the [[Second Triumvirate]] and instituting a series of brutal proscriptions.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=245}} The proscriptions claimed many lives, including that of Cicero.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=171}}

When news of the triumvirate and their proscriptions reached Brutus in the east, he marched across the Hellespont into Macedonia to quell rebellion and conquered a number of cities in Thrace.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=177}} After meeting Cassius in Smyrna in January 42,{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=178}} both generals also went on a campaign through southern Asia minor sacking cities which had aided their enemies.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=179}}

Brutus' depiction among certain authors, like Appian, suffered considerably from this eastern campaign, in which Brutus marched into cities like [[Xanthos|Xanthus]] enslaving their populations and plundering their wealth.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=182}} Other ancient historians, including Plutarch, take a more apologetic tone, having Brutus regret with tears the violence done; this was common ancient literary device to excuse and praise morally condemnable actions, such as pillaging.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=183–184}} The campaign continued with less sacking but more coerced payments; the ancient tradition on this turn also is divided, with Appian seeing eastern willingness to surrender emerging from stories of Xanthus' destruction contra Cassius Dio and Plutarch viewing the later portions of the campaign as emblematic of Brutus' virtues of moderation, justice, and honour.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|pp=189–191}}

By the end of the campaign in Asia minor, both Brutus and Cassius were tremendously rich.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=191}} They reconvened at Sardis and marched into Thrace in August 42.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=193}}

=== Philippi ===
{{see|Battle of Philippi}}

[[File:Brutus and his companions after the battle of Philippi.jpg|thumb|Brutus and his companions after the battle of Philippi]]
The Caesarians also marched into Greece, evading the naval patrols of [[Sextus Pompey]], {{interlanguage link|Lucius Staius Murcus|de}}, and [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]].{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=197}} The ''liberatores'' had positioned themselves west of Neapolis with clear lines of communication back to their supplies in the east.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=197}} Octavian and Antony, leading the Caesarian forces, were not so lucky, as their supply lines were harassed by the superior republican fleets, leading the ''liberatores'' to adopt a strategy of attrition.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=197}}

Octavian and Antony had some 95,000 infantry with 13,000 horsemen, while Brutus and Cassius had some 85,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry. Flush with cash, the ''liberatores'' also had a substantial financial advantage, paying their soldiers in advance of the battle with 1,500 denarii a man and more for officers.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=198}} Antony moved quickly to force an engagement immediately, building a causeway under cover of darkness into the swamps that anchored the republican left flank; Cassius, commanding the republican left, countered with a wall to cut off Antony from his men and to defend his own flank.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=200}}

In the ensuing first battle of Philippi, the start of the battle is unclear. Appian says Antony attacked Cassius whereas Plutarch reports battle was joined more-or-less simultaneously.{{Sfn|Tempest|2017|p=201}} Brutus' forces defeated Octavian's troops on the republican right flank, sacking Octavian's camp and forcing the young Caesar to withdraw.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=201}} Cassius' troops fared poorly against Antony's men, forcing Cassius to withdraw to a hill. Two stories then follow: Appian reports that Cassius heard of Brutus' victory, and killed himself out of shame; but all other sources describe how one of Cassius' legates failed to relay the news of Brutus' victory, causing Cassius to believe that Brutus had been defeated, and leading to his suicide.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=202}}

Following the first battle, Brutus assumed command of Cassius' army with the promise of a substantial cash reward.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=203}} He also possibly promised his soldiers that he would allow them to plunder Thessalonica and Sparta after victory, as the cities had supported the triumvirs in the conflict.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=204}} Fearful of defections among his troops and the possibility of Antony cutting his supply lines, Brutus joined battle after attempting for some time to continue the original strategy of starving the enemy out.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=205}} The resulting second battle of Philippi was a head-to-head struggle in which the sources report few tactical manoeuvres but heavy casualties, especially among eminent republican families.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=206}}

After the defeat, Brutus fled into the nearby hills with about four legions.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=207}} Knowing his army had been defeated and that he would be captured, he took his own life by falling on his sword.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=208}} Among his last words were, according to [[Plutarch]], "By all means must we fly, but with our hands, not our feet".{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=208}} Brutus reportedly also uttered the well-known verse calling down a curse quoted from Euripides' ''Medea'': "O Zeus, do not forget who has caused all these woes".{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=207}} It is, however, unclear whether Brutus was referring to Antony, as claimed by Appian, or otherwise Octavian, as Kathryn Tempest believes.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=207}} Also according to Plutarch, he praised his friends for not deserting him before encouraging them to save themselves.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=208}}

Some sources report that Antony, upon discovering Brutus' body, as a show of great respect, ordered it to be wrapped in Antony's most expensive purple mantle and cremated, with the ashes to be sent to Brutus' mother, [[Servilia (mother of Marcus Junius Brutus)|Servilia]].{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=208}} Suetonius, however, reports that Octavian had Brutus' head cut off and planned to have it displayed before a statue of Caesar until it was thrown overboard during a storm in the Adriatic.{{sfn|Tempest|2017|p=209}}