Editing Luminiferous aether (section)

====First-order experiments====
Although the aether is almost stationary according to Fresnel, his theory predicts a positive outcome of aether drift experiments only to ''second'' order in <math>v/c</math> because Fresnel's dragging coefficient would cause a negative outcome of all optical experiments capable of measuring effects to ''first'' order in <math>v/c</math>. This was confirmed by the following first-order experiments, all of which gave negative results. The following list is based on the description of [[Wilhelm Wien]] (1898), with changes and additional experiments according to the descriptions of [[Edmund Taylor Whittaker]] (1910) and [[Jakob Laub]] (1910):<ref group=B name=wien /><ref group=B name=whitt /><ref group=B name=laub />

* The experiment of [[François Arago]] (1810), to confirm whether refraction, and thus the aberration of light, is influenced by Earth's motion. Similar experiments were conducted by [[George Biddell Airy]] (1871) by means of a telescope filled with water, and [[Éleuthère Mascart]] (1872).<ref group=E name=Arago /><ref group=E name=Airy /><ref group=E name=masc1 />
* The experiment of Fizeau (1860), to find whether the rotation of the polarization plane through glass columns is changed by Earth's motion. He obtained a positive result, but Lorentz could show that the results have been contradictory. [[DeWitt Bristol Brace]] (1905) and Strasser (1907) repeated the experiment with improved accuracy, and obtained negative results.<ref group=E name=Fizeau2 /><ref group=E name=Brace2 /><ref group=E name=Strasser />
* The experiment of [[Martin Hoek]] (1868). This experiment is a more precise variation of the [[Fizeau experiment]] (1851). Two light rays were sent in opposite directions – one of them traverses a path filled with resting water, the other one follows a path through air. In agreement with Fresnel's dragging coefficient, he obtained a negative result.<ref group=E name=Hoek />
* The experiment of [[Wilhelm Klinkerfues]] (1870) investigated whether an influence of Earth's motion on the absorption line of sodium exists. He obtained a positive result, but this was shown to be an experimental error, because a repetition of the experiment by [[Hermanus Haga|Haga]] (1901) gave a negative result.<ref group=E name=Klinkerfues /><ref group=E name=Haga />
* The experiment of Ketteler (1872), in which two rays of an interferometer were sent in opposite directions through two mutually inclined tubes filled with water. No change of the interference fringes occurred. Later, Mascart (1872) showed that the interference fringes of polarized light in calcite remained uninfluenced as well.<ref group=E name=Ketteler /><ref group=E name=masc2 />
* The experiment of [[Éleuthère Mascart]] (1872) to find a change of rotation of the polarization plane in quartz. No change of rotation was found when the light rays had the direction of Earth's motion and then the opposite direction. [[Lord Rayleigh]] conducted similar experiments with improved accuracy, and obtained a negative result as well.<ref group=E name=masc1 /><ref group=E name=masc2 /><ref group=E name=Rayleigh1 />

Besides those optical experiments, also electrodynamic first-order experiments were conducted, which should have led to positive results according to Fresnel. However, [[Hendrik Antoon Lorentz]] (1895) modified Fresnel's theory and showed that those experiments can be explained by a stationary aether as well:<ref group=A name=lorb />

* The experiment of [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] (1888), to find whether a charged capacitor produces magnetic forces due to Earth's motion.<ref group=E name=Roentgen />
* The experiment of [[Theodor des Coudres]] (1889), to find whether the inductive effect of two wire rolls upon a third one is influenced by the direction of Earth's motion. Lorentz showed that this effect is cancelled to first order by the electrostatic charge (produced by Earth's motion) upon the conductors.<ref group=E name=Coudres />
* The experiment of Königsberger (1905). The plates of a capacitor are located in the field of a strong electromagnet. Due to Earth's motion, the plates should have become charged. No such effect was observed.<ref group=E name=Koenigsberger />
* The experiment of [[Frederick Thomas Trouton]] (1902). A capacitor was brought parallel to Earth's motion, and it was assumed that momentum is produced when the capacitor is charged. The negative result can be explained by Lorentz's theory, according to which the electromagnetic momentum compensates the momentum due to Earth's motion. Lorentz could also show, that the sensitivity of the apparatus was much too low to observe such an effect.<ref group=E name=Trouton1 />