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== Medieval Iran (651–1501) == {{See also|Islamic dynasties of Iran}} The fall of the [[Sasanian Empire]] in 651 was followed by nearly a millennium without Iranian political unity, until the rise of the [[Safavid Empire]] in 1501.{{Sfn|Litvak|2017}}{{Sfn|Spooner|2012|p=108}} In the intervening period, the territories formerly part of the ancient Iranian empires were variously subjected to larger foreign empires or divided into several smaller political units.{{Sfn|Litvak|2017}} Although no unified Iranian state existed, shared Iranian identity, culture, and language continued to survive and develop throughout the [[Middle Ages]].{{Sfn|Litvak|2017}}{{Sfn|Spooner|2012|p=108}} The medieval dynasties and kingdoms featured in this list follow a 2012 list of Iranian ruling dynasties by the Iranologist [[Touraj Daryaee]].{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=392–396}} === Arab (caliphal) rule (638–861) === {{See also|Iran during the Caliphate|List of caliphs}} ==== Rashidun Caliphate (638–661) ==== {{See also|Rashidun Caliphate}} [[File:Rashidun Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Rashidun Caliphate]] under [[Uthman]]|190px]] The [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] began when the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate attacked parts of Sasanian [[Asoristan]] in 633.{{Sfn|Stephen Humphreys|1999|p=180}} In 637/638, the Sasanians lost Mesopotamia{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} and Persia itself was conquered in 640{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}–650.{{Sfn|Afkande|2014|p=140}} By the time of Yazdegerd III's death in 651, the Sasanians only retained [[Bactria]].{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}} Following the Muslim victory, the Sasanian Empire was dissolved and Iran came under the direct rule of the Islamic [[caliphs]].{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxvii}} Although the caliphs implemented forms of ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians and their culture, particularly during the later [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750), they also adopted much of the old Sasanian administrative model to govern their empire.{{Sfn|Farrokh|2011|loc=Chapter 1: The Rise of the Safavids}} The style of the caliphs was [[Amir al-Mu'minin|''amīr al-mu'minīn'']] ({{Literal translation|commander of the faithful}}).''{{Sfn|Montgomery Watt|2007|p=34}}'' An additional title, ''[[Khalifa|khalīfat]] [[Allah|Allāh]]'' ({{Literal translation|deputy of God}}), was also introduced beginning with [[Uthman]] (644–656).''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=5–6}}'' The caliphate was initially ruled from [[Medina]]. Under Ali, the capital was transferred to [[Kufa]] in Iraq.{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Umar al-Farooq Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png|65px]] |[[Umar]] |637/638{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=170}}<!-- Counting from the conquest of Mesopotamia --> – 3 November 644{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xv}}<br /><small>(6/7 years)</small> |Second Islamic [[caliph]].{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} Oversaw the initial [[Muslim conquest of Persia]].{{Sfn|Stephen Humphreys|1999|p=180}} |- |[[File:Uthman Dhul-nurayn Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png|65px]] |[[Uthman]] |3 November 644 – 17 June 656{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=xv–xvi}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|644|11|3|656|6|17}})</small> |Chosen by tribal acclamation. Challenged by [[Ali]].{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} |- |[[File:Ali Murtaza Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png|65px]] |[[Ali]] |18 June 656 – 28 January 661{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xvi}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|656|6|18|661|1|28}})</small> |Caliph after Uthman's assassination. Challenged by [[Mu'awiya I|Mu'awiya]].{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} |- |colspan=4 style="background:#E6E6E6;" | |- |[[File:Hasan Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png|65px]] |[[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]] |28 January – August 661{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=xvi}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|661|1|28|661|8|}})</small> |Son of Ali and grandson of [[Muhammad]].{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=311}} Challenged by Mu'awiya.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=317}} |} ==== Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) ==== {{See also|Umayyad Caliphate}} [[File:Umayyad Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] under [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz|Umar II]]|190px]] The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] was established by [[Mu'awiya I]], governor of Syria under the Rashidun caliphs. Mu'awiya opposed the acclamations of Ali and Hasan as caliphs,{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}} leading to the civil war known as the [[First Fitna]] (656–661).{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} Mu'awiya was victorious and became undisputed caliph after Hasan relinquished his claims.{{Sfn|Osman|2014|p=61}} Umayyad caliphs continued to use the styles ''amīr al-mu'minīn'' and ''khalīfat Allāh''.''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=4–16}}'' The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled from [[Damascus]], though the capital was briefly transferred to [[Harran]] under the last caliph, [[Marwan II]].''{{Sfn|Daiber|2012|p=49}}'' {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Arab-Sasanian coin of Muawiyah I, struck at the Fasa mint in Darabjird (Fars).jpg|65px]] |[[Mu'awiya I]] |July/August 661 – April/May 680{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>(18 years and 9 months)</small> |Seized power in the [[First Fitna]]{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} |- |[[File:Umayyad Caliphate. temp. Yazid I ibn Mu'awiya. AH 60-64 AD 680-683.jpg|65px]] |[[Yazid I]] |April/May 680 – 11 November 683{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>(3 years and 6 or 7 months)</small> |Son of Mu'awiya I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} |- |[[File:Umayyad Caliphate. temp. Mu'awiya II ibn Yazid. AH 64 AD 683-684.jpg|65px]] |[[Mu'awiya II]] |11 November 683 – 22 June 684{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|683|11|11|684|6|22}})</small> |Son of Yazid I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} |- |[[File:Drachm from Yazid I to Marwan I; Talha governor.jpg|65px]] |[[Marwan I]] |22 June 684 – 7 May 685{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|684|6|22|685|5|7}})</small> |Cousin of Mu'awiya I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=392}} |- |[[File:Arab-Sasanian coin (issue of Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra) struck during the reign of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.jpg|65px]] |[[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] |7 May 685 – 8 October 705{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|685|5|7|705|10|8}})</small> |Son of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Dinar of al-Walid I.jpg|65px]] |[[al-Walid I]] |8 October 705 – 25 February 715{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|705|10|8|715|2|25}})</small> |Son of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Gold dinar of Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, 715-716.jpg|65px]] |[[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik|Sulayman]] |25 February 715 – 22 September 717{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|715|2|25|717|9|22}})</small> |Son of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Gold dinar of Umar II.jpg|65px]] |[[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz|Umar II]] |22 September 717 – 5 February 720{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|717|9|22|720|2|5}})</small> |Son of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Yazid II. Dinar.jpg|65px]] |[[Yazid II]] |5 February 720 – 28 January 724{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|720|2|5|724|1|28}})</small> |Son of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Dihrem of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik.jpg|65px]] |[[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Hisham]] |28 January 724 – 6 February 743{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|724|1|28|743|2|6}})</small> |Son of Abd al-Malik{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Umayyad fresco of Prince (future caliph) Walid bin Yazid.jpg|65px]] |[[al-Walid II]] |6 February 743 – 16 April 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|743|2|6|744|4|16}})</small> |Son of Yazid II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Dihrem of Yazid III ibn al-Walid, AH 126.jpg|65px]] |[[Yazid III]] |16 April – 20 September 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|744|4|16|744|9|20}})</small> |Son of al-Walid I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Dihrem of Ibrahim ibn al-Walid.jpg|65px]] |[[Ibrahim ibn al-Walid|Ibrahim]] |20 September – 25 November 744{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|744|9|20|744|11|25}})</small> |Son of al-Walid I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Dirham of Marwan II ibn Muhammad, AH 127-132.jpg|65px]] |[[Marwan II]] |25 November 744 – 750{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=545}}<br /><small>({{circa}} 6 years)</small> |Grandson of Marwan I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |} ==== Abbasid Caliphate (749–861) ==== {{See also|Abbasid Caliphate}} [[File:Abbasid Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Abbasid Caliphate]] under [[al-Mutawakkil]]|190px]] Because Mu'awiya took power in civil war, the rights of his and his descendants to the caliphate was long questioned. Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam (especially Iranians) who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the [[Abbasid revolution]], in which the Umayyads were replaced with the [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasids]], descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas]].{{Sfn|Osman|2014|pp=62–63}} Abbasid caliphs continued to use the styles ''amīr al-mu'minīn'' and ''khalīfat Allāh''.''{{Sfn|Crone|Hinds|2003|pp=4–16}}'' The Abbasid Caliphate was ruled from [[Kufa]], until the capital was transferred to the newly-founded [[Baghdad]] in 762.''{{Sfn|Starkey|2013|p=359}}'' {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Dirhem of al-Saffah, AH 132-136.jpg|65px]] |[[al-Saffah]] |6 November 749 – 9 June 754{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|749|11|6|754|6|9}})</small> |Seized power in the [[Abbasid revolution]]{{Sfn|Kechichian|2001|p=12}} |- |[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Mansur - 140 AH (758 AD).JPG|65px]] |[[al-Mansur]] |9 June 754 – 7 October 775{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|754|6|9|775|10|7}})</small> |Brother of al-Saffrah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Arab-Sasanian coin of the Tabaristan type issued under Caliph al-Mahdi.jpg|65px]] |[[al-Mahdi]] |7 October 775 – 4 August 785{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|775|10|7|785|8|4}})</small> |Son of al-Mansur{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Dirhem of Al-Hadi, AH 170.jpg|65px]] |[[al-Hadi]] |4 August 785 – 15 September 786{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|785|8|4|786|9|15}})</small> |Son of al-Mahdi{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Ar-Rashid AV dinar 171AH Harun amir yevlem.jpg|65px]] |[[Harun al-Rashid]] |15 September 786 – 24 March 809{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=1}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|786|9|15|809|3|24}})</small> |Son of al-Mahdi{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Amin - 195 AH (811 AD).jpg|65px]] |[[al-Amin]] |24 March 809 – 27 September 813{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=1–2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|809|3|24|813|9|27}})</small> |Son of Harun al-Rashid{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Coin of the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun.jpg|65px]] |[[al-Ma'mun]] |27 September 813 – 7 August 833{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=1–2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|813|9|27|833|8|7}})</small> |Son of Harun al-Rashid{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al-Mu'tasim-225h.jpg|65px]] |[[al-Mu'tasim]] |7 August 833 – 5 January 842{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|833|8|7|842|1|5}})</small> |Son of Harun al-Rashid{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Dinar of al-Wathiq, AH 227-232.jpg|65px]] |[[al-Wathiq]] |5 January 842 – 10 August 847{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|842|1|5|847|8|10}})</small> |Son of al-Mu'tasim{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} |- |[[File:Al-Mutawakkil.png|65px]] |[[al-Mutawakkil]] |10 August 847 – 11 December 861{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=2}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|847|8|10|861|12|11}})</small> |Son of al-Mu'tasim.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=393}} Regarded as the last Abbasid caliph wielding major political power.{{Sfn|Gillespie|2013|p=227}} |} === Iranian Intermezzo (821–1090) === {{See also|Iranian Intermezzo}} The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries.{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties,{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]] in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo".{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} This list only includes major dynasties. Both Daryaee (2012){{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=392–396}} and Mahendrarajah (2019){{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} list the major dynasties of the period as the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]], [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids]], [[Ziyarid dynasty|Ziyarids]], [[Buyid dynasty|Buyids]], and [[Samanid Empire|Samanids]]. Daryaee also includes the [[Ghaznavids]], omitted by Mahendrarajah. ==== Tahirids (821–873) ==== {{See also|Tahirid dynasty}} [[File:Tahirid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]] at their greatest extent|190px]] The Tahirids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who governed [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and much of the rest of Iran under the Abbasid caliphs. The Tahirids enjoyed considerable autonomy in practice but were not ''[[de jure]]'' independent;{{sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=139}}{{sfn|Esposito|2000|p=38}}{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} Tahirid rulers fully acknowledged that they were subordinate viceroys, were always deferential to the caliphs, and regularly forwarded tribute to Baghdad.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} The Tahirids were [[Arabization|Arabized]], but they were nevertheless Persians.<ref> * {{Harvnb|Bosworth|1975|p=90}}: "The Ṭāhirids were culturally highly Arabicized, but they were nevertheless Persians. The firm and generally just rule which they gave to the eastern Iranian world favoured a material and cultural progress, whereas earlier, the indigenous, older Iranian culture had been weakened by the dynamic impact of Islamic religion and Arab political dominance." * {{harvnb|Yarshater|2004a}}: "The Taherids were thoroughly Arabicized and remained loyal to the caliphate, but the fact that they were of Persian extraction and were ruling in Persian territory made a start for dynasties in Persia enjoying local autonomy."</ref> The Tahirids claimed descent from the Iranian mythological hero [[Rostam]].{{sfn|Tor|2012|p=152}} As vassals of the Caliphate, the Tahirid rulers used the title ''[[amir]]''.{{sfn|El-Hibri|2021|p=147}} The Tahirids initially ruled from [[Merv]]. The capital was transferred to [[Nishapur]] under Abdallah.{{sfn|Daniel|2000}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:TahiribnHusaynCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]] |[[Tahir ibn Husayn|Tahir I]] |821–822{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small> |Granted governorship of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by Caliph [[al-Ma'mun]] for his service in the [[Fourth Fitna]]{{sfn|Daniel|2000}} |- |[[File:Talha ibn Tahir.jpg|65px]] |[[Talha ibn Tahir|Talha]] |822–828{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(6 years)</small> |Son of Tahir I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani|Abdallah]] |828–845{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(17 years)</small> |Son of Tahir I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Tahir ibn Abdallah|Tahir II]] |845–862{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(17 years)</small> |Son of Abdallah{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Muhammad ibn Tahir|Muhammad]] |862–873{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small> |Son of Tahir II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |} ==== Saffarids (867–1002) ==== {{See also|Saffarid dynasty}} [[File:Saffarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarids]] at their greatest extent|190px]] The Saffarids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who at their height ruled much of Iran, and at times even reached into modern-day Iraq, from their base of power in [[Sistan]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} Although the dynastic founder [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar|Ya'qub]] (867–879) claimed Sasanian descent,{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}} the Saffarid dynasty originated as local ruffians{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} and their power was attained solely through military might.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} The Saffarid state expanded aggressively under the rule of Ya'qub and [[Amr ibn al-Layth|Amr I]] (879–901), under which the Tahirids were defeated and the Abbasid Caliphate was forced to confirm Saffarid control over various Iranian territories.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} Since they were nominally Abbasid subordinates, Saffarid rulers used the title ''[[amir]]''.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} [[Zaranj]] served as the Saffarid capital.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Ya'qub al-Layth's Silver Dirham.jpg|65px]] |[[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar|Ya'qub]] |867–879{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small> |Local ruffian{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} who established control over [[Sistan]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and beyond{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} |- |[[File:Amr ibn al-Layth.jpg|65px]] |[[Amr ibn al-Layth|Amr I]] |879–901{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(22 years)</small> |Brother of Ya'qub{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Tahir ibn Muhammad ibn Amr|Tahir]] |901–909{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(8 years)</small> |Grandson of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[al-Layth]] |909–910{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small> |Nephew of Ya'qub and Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Layth|Muhammad]] |910–911{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small> |Brother of al-Layth{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[al-Mu'addal]] |911{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small> |Brother of al-Layth{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Amr ibn Ya'qub|Amr II]] |912–913{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small> |Great-grandson of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |colspan="4" style="background:#E6E6E6;"|Interregnum 913–923:{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} occupation by the [[Samanid Empire|Samanids]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2010}} |- |[[File:AhmadIbnMuhammadSaffaridCoin.jpg|65px]] |[[Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Muhammad|Ahmad]] |923–963{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(40 years)</small> |Married to a granddaughter of Amr I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |[[File:KhalafibnAhmadCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]] |[[Khalaf ibn Ahmad|Khalaf]] |963–1002{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(39 years)</small> |Son of Ahmad{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |} ==== Samanids (875–999)<!-- The timespan does not count the earlier, disunited Samanid emirates --> ==== {{See also|Samanid Empire}} [[File:Samanid Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Samanid Empire|Samanids]] at their greatest extent|190px]] The Samanids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by four brothers in 819, when they were granted four important cities and regions by the Abbasid Caliphate due to helping against the revolt of [[Rafi ibn al-Layth]].{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} In 875, the Samanids increased dramatically in power through investment as governors of [[Transoxiana]]{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} and in 892, all Samanid-held territories were united under a single ruler ([[Ismail Samani|Ismail]]). Under Ismail, the Samanids became autonomous of the Abbasids.{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} The Samanids claimed descent from [[Bahram Chobin|Bahram VI Chobin]] (589–590).{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}} Like other dynasties of their time, Samanid rulers used the title ''[[amir]]''.{{sfn|Haug|2022}} [[Mansur I]] (961/962–976/977) assumed the style ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) as a response to the use of that title by the Buyids.{{sfn|Madelung|Daftary|Meri|2003|p=330}} Mansur I's son, [[Nuh II]] (976/977–997), also used ''šāhānšāh''.{{sfn|al-Mulk|2002|p=156}} The Samanid capital was at [[Samarkand]] (875–892) and then at [[Bukhara]].{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Nasr I]] |875{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} – August/September 892{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(17 years)</small> |Appointed governor of [[Transoxiana]] by the Abbasid Caliphate in 875{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |[[File:Coinage of Isma'il I ibn Ahmad (AH 279-295 AD 892-907) Usrushana mint. Dated AH 280 (AD 893-4).jpg|65px]] |[[Ismail Samani|Ismail]] |August/September 892 – 24 November 907{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(15 years and 2–3 months)</small> |Brother of Nasr I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |[[File:Ruler Aḥmad Sāmānī from the genealogy (silsilanāma), Cream of Histories (Zübdet-üt Tevarih, 1598).jpg|65px]] |[[Ahmad Samani|Ahmad]]<br />''<small>the Martyred Amir</small>'' |November/December 907 – 24 January 914{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(6 years and 2–3 months)</small> |Son of Ismail{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |[[File:NasrIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]] |[[Nasr II]]<br />''<small>the Fortunate</small>'' |January 914 – March/April 943{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(29 years and 2–3 months)</small> |Son of Ahmad{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |[[File:NuhISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]] |[[Nuh I]] |April/May 943 – 954/955{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(11–12 years)</small> |Son of Nasr II{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} |- |[[File:Gold coin of the Samanid ruler Abd al-Malik I, minted at Nishapur in 955 or 956.jpg|65px]] |[[Abd al-Malik I (Samanid emir)|Abd al-Malik I]] |954/955–961/962{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(8 years)</small> |Son of Nuh I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |[[File:Mansur I.jpg|65px]] |[[Mansur I]]<br />''<small>the Righteous Amir</small>'' |961/962–976/977{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(15 years)</small> |Son of Nuh I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} |- |[[File:NuhIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]] |[[Nuh II]] |976/977 – 22 July 997{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(10–11 years)</small> |Son of Mansur I{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |[[File:Ghaznavid coin citing the Samanid ruler Mansur II as overlord.jpg|65px]] |[[Mansur II]] |July/August 997 – 1 February 999{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}}<br /><small>(1 year and 6–7 months)</small> |Son of Nuh II{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Abd al-Malik II (Samanid emir)|Abd al-Malik II]] |February 999{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} – 999{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small> |Son of Nuh II{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=480}} |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (999–1005) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Isma'il Muntasir|Ismail II]]<br /><small>''Muntasir'' ({{Literal translation|the Victorious}})</small> |999{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}}–1005{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}}<br /><small>(6 years)</small> |Son of Nuh II.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} Fought against the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]], which conquered Bukhara, for several years in an effort to restore the Samanids.{{Sfn|Baumer|2016|loc=The Samanids}} |} ==== Ziyarids (927–1090/1091) ==== {{See also|Ziyarid dynasty}} [[File:Ziyarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Ziyarid dynasty|Ziyarids]] at their greatest extent|190px]] The Ziyarids were a dynasty of Iranian rulers established in northern Iran by [[Mardavij]], a local mountain chief and mercenary who created an extensive kingdom in the late 920s and early 930s. Mardavij claimed descent from local pre-Islamic nobility and aspired to capture Baghdad, overthrow the Abbasids, and restore both the pre-651 empire as well as the Zoroastrian religion.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} These aspirations came to an end with Mardavij's murder by his Turkic military slaves in 934/935.{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} Most of the Ziyarid realm was lost, except for territories surrounding the [[Caspian Sea]], inherited by Mardavij's Islamic relatives.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} Mardavij may have revived the Sasanian ruling title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) since later [[Buyid dynasty|Buyid]] writers attribute the title to him.{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}{{Efn|Mardavij also fashioned a golden throne for himself, in imitation of the ancient throne of the Sasanian rulers.{{sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}}}} Later Ziyarid rulers used the title ''[[amir]]''.{{sfn|Blair|1992}} The Ziyarids went through a succession of capitals in northern Iran, including [[Ray, Iran|Ray]], [[Amol]], and [[Gorgan]].{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:MardavijCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]] |[[Mardavij]] |927/928–934/935{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(7 years)</small> |Mountain chief and mercenary who took control of much of northern Iran{{sfn|Bosworth|2010a}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Vushmgir]] |934/935–966/967{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(32 years)</small> |Brother of Mardavij{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |[[File:Bisutun of Ziyarid.jpg|65px]] |[[Bisutun]] |966/967–977/978{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(11 years)</small> |Son of Vushmgir{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |[[File:Coin of Qabus, minted in Jurjan (Gorgan).jpg|65px]] |[[Qabus]] |977/978–1012/1013 (in exile 981–998){{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(35 years)</small> |Son of Vushmgir{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Manuchihr]] |1012/1013–1029/1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(17 years)</small> |Son of Qabus{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Anushirvan Sharaf al-Ma'ali|Anushirvan]] |1029/1030–1049/1050{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}}<br /><small>(20 years)</small> |Son of Manuchihr{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Keikavus (Ziyarid)|Keikavus]] |1049/1050–?{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |Cousin of Anushirvan{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Gilanshah]] |?–1090/1091{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |Son of Keikavus{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=579}} |} ==== Buyids (934–1062) ==== {{See also|Buyid dynasty}} [[File:Buyid Dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Buyid dynasty|Buyids]] at their greatest extent|190px]] The Buyids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by three brothers who had served under [[Mardavij]] (the first Ziyarid ruler). After Mardavij's murder, the three carved out their own realm out of the southern Ziyarid territories.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} The Buyid state was composed of three principalities ruled by three branches of the family, sometimes with divergent goals, rather than a unified realm.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} The Buyids came to dominate much of Iran, a development that culminated in 945 with the capture of [[Baghdad]] and domination of the caliph himself.{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} The Buyid dynasty claimed descent from the Sasanian king [[Bahram V]] (420–438),{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}} almost certainly a forgery.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} Individual Buyid rulers were styled as ''[[amir]]''. The senior of the three was also invested by the caliph with the grander title ''amīr al-omarāʾ'' ({{Literal translation|great emir}}).{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} The Buyid emirates were transformed into something akin to a restored Iranian monarchy under [[Rukn al-Dawla]] and his son [['Adud al-Dawla]], who also reintroduced the Sasanian royal title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}).{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}} This title continued to be sporadically claimed by Buyid dynasts.{{efn|[[Rukn al-Dawla]] claimed Iranian imperial status by 962, when he minted a medal depicting him similar to a Sasanian ruler with the inscription "may the glory of the king of kings increase".{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=44}} 'Adud al-Dawla also claimed the title ''šāhānšāh'' by 965. In 969, he minted a medal with the inscriptions "''šāhānšāh'', may his glory increase" and "May ''šāh'' Panāh Khusraw live long".{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=45}} The caliphs opposed Buyid use of the old imperial title.{{Sfn|Kraemer|1992|p=45}} 'Adud al-Dawla's son [[Baha al-Dawla]] is recorded to have used the Arabic version of 'King of Kings' (''malik al-mulūk'') and the title is also recorded in both Arabic and Persian for Baha al-Dawla's grandson [[Abu Kalijar|Abu Kalijar Marzuban]].{{Sfn|Blair|1992|p=6}} The title was sometimes assumed by rival emirs not part of the 'main branch' listed below, such as [[Fakhr al-Dawla]] and [[Musharrif al-Dawla]].}} This list records only the 'main branch' of Buyid rulers, per Daryaee (2012).{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} For a full list of major and minor Buyid rulers, see [[Buyid dynasty#Buyid rulers|Buyid dynasty § Buyid rulers]]. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Imad al-Dawla coin.jpg|65px]] |[[Imad al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Ali)</small> |933/934–949/950{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}}<br /><small>(16 years, [[Fars province|Fars]]{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}})</small> |Son of a [[Daylamites|Daylamite]] chief.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} Seized power in the southern territories of the Ziyarid state.{{sfn|Nagel|1990}} |- |[[File:Mu'izz al-Dawla coin.jpg|65px]] |[[Mu'izz al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Ahmad)</small> |935/936–949/950{{Sfn|Ross|1977|pp=111–112}}<br /><small>(14 years, [[Kerman province|Kerman]]{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}} then Iraq{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}})</small> |Brother (and coregent) of Imad al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |[[File:Rukn al-Dawla (cropped).jpg|65px]] |[[Rukn al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Hasan)</small> |946/947 – 16 September 976{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=112}}<br /><small>(29–30 years, [[Ray, Iran|Ray]]{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}})</small> |Brother (and coregent) of Imad al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |[[File:Adud al-Dawla.jpg|65px]] |[['Adud al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Panāh Khusraw)</small> |949/950 – 26 March 983{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}}<br /><small>(33–34 years)</small> |Son of Rukn al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |[[File:Sharaf al-Dawla.jpg|65px]] |[[Sharaf al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Shirdil)</small> |March/April 983 – September/October 989{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=111}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|983|3||989|9|}})</small> |Son of 'Adud al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |[[File:Samsam al-Dawla.jpg|65px]] |[[Samsam al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Abu Kalijar Marzuban)</small> |989–998{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(9 years)</small> |Son of 'Adud al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |[[File:Baha' al-DawlaBuyidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]] |[[Baha al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Abu Nasr Firuz)</small> |998–1012{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(14 years)</small> |Son of 'Adud al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |[[File:Sultan al-Dawla coin.jpg|65px]] |[[Sultan al-Dawla]]<br /><small>(Abu Shuja)</small> |1012–1024{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small> |Son of Baha al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |[[File:AbuKalijarBuyidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg|65px]] |[[Abu Kalijar|Abu Kalijar Marzuban]] |1024–1048{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(24 years)</small> |Son of Sultan al-Dawla{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun]] |1048–1062{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}}<br /><small>(14 years)</small> |Son of Abu Kalijar Marzuban{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=394}} |} ==== Ghaznavids (977–1040) ==== {{See also|Ghaznavids}} [[File:Ghaznavids (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Ghaznavids]] at their greatest extent|190px]] The Ghaznavids were of Turkic{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} slave origin.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} In the tenth century, Turkish slave commanders became increasingly prominent, and eventually effectively autonomous, in the southern parts of the Samanid realm. In 977, the commander [[Sabuktigin]] seized power in [[Ghazni]], nominally as a Samanid vassal. Once the Samanids went into terminal decline and collapsed in the late tenth century, Sabuktigin's state became a fully independent realm.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} Although not Iranian, the Ghaznavid rulers nevertheless claimed descent from the Sasanian ruler [[Yazdegerd III]] ({{Circa}} 633–651).{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}} Sabuktigin ruled with the title ''al-ḥājeb al-ajall'' ({{Literal translation|most noble commander}}).{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} From 999 onwards,{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} the Ghaznavids ruled with the title ''[[Sultan|sulṭān]]''.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} Sabuktigin's capital, Ghazni, remained the Ghaznavid capital for the duration of their rule in Iran.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Coin of the Ghaznavid amir Sabuktigin, citing the Samanid amir Nuh II as his overlord. Date unknown, minted at Ghazna.jpg|65px]] |[[Sabuktigin]] |977/978–997/998{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(20 years)</small> |Seized power in [[Ghazni]]{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Ismail of Ghazni|Ismail]] |997/998–998{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small> |Son of Sabuktigin{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} |- |[[File:Mahmud of Ghazni bilingual dirham.jpg|65px]] |[[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]] |998 – 30 April 1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(32 years)</small> |Son of Sabuktigin{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|p=395}} |- |[[File:MohammadGhaznavidCoin.jpg|65px]] |[[Muhammad of Ghazni|Muhammad]] |1030{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small> |Son of Mahmud{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} |- |[[File:Mas'udIGhaznavidCoin.jpg|65px]] |[[Masʽud I|Masʽud]] |1030 – 23 May 1040{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}}<br /><small>(10 years)</small> |Son of Mahmud{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} |} The Ghaznavids lost their territories in Iran to the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] after the [[Battle of Dandanaqan]] (1040).{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} For later Ghaznavid rulers, see [[Ghaznavids#List of rulers|Ghaznavids § List of rulers]]. === Turco-Mongol rule (1038–1508) === ==== Seljuk Empire (1038–1194) ==== {{See also|Seljuk Empire|Seljuk dynasty|List of sultans of the Seljuk Empire}} [[File:Seljuk Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Seljuk Empire]] under [[Malik-Shah I]]|190px]] The Seljuk Empire was established by the [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] chieftain [[Tughril I]], who invaded the Ghaznavids in the late 1030s.{{sfn|Barthold|1962|pp=107–108}} In 1040, the Seljuks conquered the Ghaznavid-held parts of Iran{{Sfn|Bosworth|2001}}{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=230}} and over the following decades they established control over most of the Middle East,{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} ending the Iranian Intermezzo.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} Though they were not of Iranian origin, the Seljuk rulers bolstered their legitimacy by claiming descent from [[Afrasiab]], a legendary figure from the ''[[Shahnameh]]''.''{{Sfn|Davaran|2010|p=157}}'' From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) in its Persian form,{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} perhaps adopting it from the Buyids.{{Sfn|Blair|1992|p=6}} Later on, the rulers more prominently used the Arabic title ''[[Sultan|sulṭān]]'' and royal styles such as the Arabic ''malik'' and Persian ''šāh'' were bestowed on vassals.{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} ''Šāhānšāh'' continued to be used on the majority of Seljuk coinage, sometimes in the new variant "''šāhānšāh'' king of Islam".{{sfn|Tor|2012|p=150}} [[Nishapur]] served as the first capital of the Seljuk Empire. In 1143, the capital was moved to [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] and a few years later it was moved again to [[Isfahan]]. From 1118 onwards, the Seljuk regime became increasingle unstable and rival claimants used various bases of power, including [[Baghdad]], [[Hamadan]], and [[Merv]].{{sfn|Lowe|Yasuhara|2017|loc=The golden age of Islam}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Tugrul bey.jpg|65px]] |[[Tughril I]] |June/July 1038{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=37}} – 4 September 1063{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}}<br /><small>(25 years and 2–3 months)</small> |Initiated the Seljuk conquest of Iran{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=37}} |- |[[File:Alp Arslan on throne Majma al-Tawarikh by Hafiz Abru (cropped).png|65px]] |[[Alp Arslan]] |4 September 1063 – 15 December 1072{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1063|9|4|1072|12|15}})</small> |Nephew of Tughril I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:Malik-Shah I (portrait).jpg|65px]] |[[Malik-Shah I]] |15 December 1072{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 14 October 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=64}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1072|12|15|1092|10|14}})</small> |Son of Alp Arslan{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:Gold dinar of the Seljuk sultan Mahmud I, minted at Isfahan in 1093 or 1094.jpg|65px]] |[[Mahmud I (Seljuk sultan)|Mahmud I]] |14 October 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=64}} – 1093{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}}<br /><small>(c. 1 year)</small> |Son of Malik-Shah I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:BarkiyaruqPainting (cropped).jpg|65px]] |[[Berkyaruq]] |October/November 1092{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=67}} – 22 December 1104{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}}<br /><small>(12 years and 1–2 months)</small> |Son of Malik-Shah I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Malik-Shah II]] |22 December 1104 – February/March 1105{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}}<br /><small>(2–3 months)</small> |Son of Berkyaruq{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}} |- |[[File:Muhammad I Tapar (cropped).png|65px]] |[[Muhammad I Tapar]] |February/March 1105{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=71}} – 5 August 1118{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}}<br /><small>(13 years and 5–6 months)</small> |Son of Malik-Shah I{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:Coin struck under Mughith al-Din Mahmud II, citing governor Inanch Yabghu.jpg|65px]] |[[Mahmud II (Seljuk sultan)|Mahmud II]] |5 August 1118{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 11 September 1131{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=101}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1118|8|5|1131|9|11}})</small> |Son of Muhammad I Tapar.{{Sfn|Luther|2001|pp=79–80}} Defeated by his uncle Ahmad Sanjar after eight months of rule, thereafter sultan only in Iraq.{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=99}} |- |[[File:Ahmad Sanjar (cropped).jpg|65px]] |[[Ahmad Sanjar]] |1118{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} – 8 May 1157{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=101}}<br /><small>(39 years)</small> |Son of Malik-Shah I.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} Previously Seljuk ruler in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=80}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Dawud (Seljuk sultan)|Dawud]] |December 1132/January 1133{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=102}}<br /><small>(briefly)</small> |Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Tughril II]] |December 1132/January 1133 – October/November 1134{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}}<br /><small>(1 year and 10 months)</small> |Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud|Mas'ud]] |October/November 1134{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}} – 10 October 1152{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}}<br /><small>(18 years)</small> |Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Malik-Shah III]] |October 1152 – December 1152/January 1153{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=121}}<br /><small>(2–3 months)</small> |Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Muhammad II ibn Mahmud|Muhammad II]] |December 1152/January 1153{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=140}} – December 1159/January 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=132}}<br /><small>(7 years)</small> |Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Suleiman of the Seljuk Empire|Suleiman-Shah]] |22 March{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=135}} – September/October 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=136}}<br /><small>(6–7 months)</small> |Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Arslan-Shah (Seljuk sultan)|Arslan-Shah]] |September/October 1160{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=136}} – January/February 1176{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=150}}<br /><small>(15 years and 4 months)</small> |Son of Tughril II; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |- |[[File:Tughril III.jpg|65px]] |[[Toghrul III|Tughril III]] |January/February 1176{{Sfn|Luther|2001|p=150}} – 1194{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(18 years)</small> |Son of Arslan-Shah; sultan in Iraq{{Sfn|Christie|2020|loc=Dynastic tables and genealogies}} |} ==== Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220/1221) ==== {{See also|Khwarazmian Empire|Anushtegin dynasty|Khwarazmshah}} [[File:Khwarazmian dynasty (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Khwarazmian Empire]] under [[Muhammad II of Khwarazm|Muhammad II]]|190px]] The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent.{{sfn|El-Azhari|2019|p=311}} One of these vassals was the [[Anushtegin dynasty]], which ruled the [[Khwarazm]] region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of [[Anushtegin Gharchai]], a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans.{{Sfn|Bosworth|1986}} In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler [[Ala al-Din Tekish|Tekish]] conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title [[Khwarazmshah|''xwârazmšāh'']], traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} [[Konye-Urgench|Urganj]] was the Khwarazmian capital.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- | |[[Muhammad I of Khwarazm|Muhammad I]] |1096/1097 – 1127/1128{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(31 years)</small> |Seljuk vassal in Khwarazm{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |[[File:Coin of the Khwarazmshah Atsiz, citing his suzerain Ahmad Sanjar.jpg|65px]] |[[Atsiz]] |1127/1128 – 30 July 1156{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(28–29 years)</small> |Son of Muhammad I. Seljuk vassal.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |[[File:Il-Arslan (portrait).jpg|65px]] |[[Il-Arslan]] |22 August 1156 – March 1172{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(15 years and 7 months)</small> |Son of Atsiz{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultan Shah]] |1172 – 11 December 1172{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small> |Son of Il-Arslan.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} Deposed by Tekish, who he continued to oppose as a rival claimant until 1193.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Ala al-Din Tekish|Tekish]] |11 December 1172 – 3 July 1200{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1172|12|11|1200|7|3}})</small> |Son of Il-Arslan.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} Conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire in 1194.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |- |[[File:Muhammad II portrait in a 1430 manuscript of the Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.jpg|65px]] |[[Muhammad II of Khwarazm|Muhammad II]] |3 August 1200 – 1220/1221{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(20–21 years)</small> |Son of Tekish{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" |+ Later pretenders (1220/1221–1231) |- ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Tenure ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Khwarizm Shahs. Jalal al-Din Mangubarni. AH 617-628 AD 1220-1231. AR Double Dirhem (20mm, 5.90 g, 1h). Qal 'a Nay mint.jpg|65px]] |[[Jalal al-Din Mangburni|Mangburni]] |1220/1221 – August 1231{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}}<br /><small>(10–11 years)</small> |Son of Muhammad II.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} Fled to India for three years (1221–1224) after the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire and was then involved in various wars in western Iran.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} |} ==== Mongol Empire (1220–1259) ==== {{See also|Mongol Empire|Borjigin|List of Mongol rulers}} [[File:Mongol Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Mongol Empire]]'s nominal size under [[Kublai Khan]] (1279)|190px]] The Mongol Empire was established by [[Genghis Khan]] in 1206 through uniting the [[Mongols|Mongol]] clans.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=244}} The unification of the clans was followed by aggressive imperial expansion throughout Asia and parts of Europe.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=244}} In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols under reached Iran. The region around [[Bukhara]] was conquered in 1220{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the [[Siege of Baghdad|fall of Baghdad]] and end of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]'s rule there in 1258.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} The rulers of the Mongol Empire used the ruling title ''[[khagan]]'' ({{Literal translation|Great Khan' or 'emperor}}).{{Sfn|Falk|2010|p=9}} In the 1230s, the Mongol Empire established its capital at [[Karakorum]] in Mongolia.{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=85}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg|65px]] |[[Genghis Khan]] |1220{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} – 25 August 1227{{Sfn|Atwood|2023|loc=The 1228 theory}}<br /><small>(7 years)</small> |Founder of the Mongol Empire.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=249–250}} Conquered the region around [[Bukhara]] in 1220, initiating Mongol rule in Iran.{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} |- |[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg|65px]] |[[Ögedei Khan]] |13 September 1229{{Sfn|Atwood|2023|loc=The 1228 theory}} – 11 December 1241{{Sfn|Pow|2022}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1229|9|13|1241|12|11}})</small> |Son of Genghis{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} |- |[[File:Guyuk khan from Persian miniature.jpg|65px]] |[[Güyük Khan]] |24 August 1246 – April 1248{{Sfn|Jackson|2002}}<br /><small>(1 year and 8 months)</small> |Son of Ögedei{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=82}} |- |[[File:Audience de Möngke.jpeg|65px]] |[[Möngke Khan]] |2 May 1252{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=27}} – 11 August 1259{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=143}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1252|5|2|1259|8|11}})</small> |Grandson of Genghis{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=86}} |} ==== Ilkhanate (1256–1388) ==== {{See also|Ilkhanate|Borjigin|Division of the Mongol Empire}} [[File:Ilkhanate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Ilkhanate]] under [[Ghazan|Ghazan Khan]]|190px]] After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. [[Kublai Khan]] (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} In much of the south-west of the empire (including Iran), power fell to [[Hulegu Khan]],{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}} who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a ''[[fatwa]]'' issued by the Shia scholar [[Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli]].{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=253–254, 256}} Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=253–254, 256}} [[Ghazan Khan]] (1295–1304) converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}} The rulers of the Ilkhanate adopted the style ''ilkhan'' ({{Literal translation|subordinate khan}}) to show deference to the Great Khan in China and Mongolia.{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}} From the time of Ghazan Khan onwards, they also used the title ''[[Padishah|pādishāh]]-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}), sometimes extended to ''pādishāh-i Īrān wa Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran and Islam}}).{{Sfn|Fragner|2013|p=73}} The version ''pādishāh-i Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Islam}}) is also recorded.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} The Ilkhanate went through a succession of capitals, beginning with [[Maragheh]] (1256–1265), [[Tabriz]] (1265–1306), and [[Soltaniyeh]] (1306–1335).{{Sfn|Falk|2024|loc=Us and Them}} After the empire disintegrated in the 1330s, various claimants established different centers of power. The last ilkhan, [[Luqman (ilkhan)|Luqman]], ruled from [[Astarabad]] under [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] suzerainty.{{Sfn|Jackson|2017|p=383}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Hulagu Khan.jpg|65px]] |[[Hulegu Khan]] |1256{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Saljuk Sultanate}} – 8 February 1265{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=155}}<br /><small>(9 years)</small> |Grandson of Genghis Khan.{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} Granted power in Iran under Möngke Khan.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} |- |[[File:Abaqa Khan.jpg|65px]] |[[Abaqa Khan]] |8 February 1265{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=155}} – 1 April 1282{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}{{Sfn|Dashdondog|2011|p=175}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1265|2|8|1282|4|1}})</small> |Son of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:Tegüder portrait.jpg|65px]] |[[Tekuder|Ahmad Tekuder]] |1 April 1282{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} – 10 August 1284{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1282|4|1|1284|8|10}})</small> |Son of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:ArghunEnthroned (cropped).png|65px]] |[[Arghun|Arghun Khan]] |11 August 1284 – 10 March 1291{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1284|8|11|1291|3|10}})</small> |Son of Abaqa{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:سکه گیخاتو.jpg|65px]] |[[Gaykhatu]] |10 March 1291 – 26 March 1295{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1291|3|10|1295|3|26}})</small> |Son of Abaqa{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:Gold Mithqal of Baydu, Madinat Tabriz, 694 H (1295).jpg|65px]] |[[Baydu]] |26 March – summer? 1295{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}<br /><small>(a few months)</small> |Grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:GhazanConversionToIslam (cropped).JPG|55px]] |[[Ghazan|Ghazan Khan]] |Summer? 1295 – 11 May 1304{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}<br /><small>(9 years)</small> |Son of Arghun{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:Majma' al-Tavarikh 001 (cropped) (cropped).jpg|55px]] |[[Öljaitü]] |11 May 1304 – 16 December 1316{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1304|5|11|1316|12|16}})</small> |Son of Arghun{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} |- |[[File:In the Court of Abu Saʿid, folio from a manuscript of Nigaristan, Iran, probably Shiraz, dated 1573-74 (Abu Saʿid detail).jpg|65px]] |[[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]] |16 December 1316{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Mongol 'Ilkhanate' of Persia}} – 30 November 1335{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1316|12|16|1335|11|30}})</small> |Son of Öljaitü{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:Ilkhan Musa Khan Dirham.jpg|65px]] |[[Musa (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Musa Khan]] |1335/1336–1336{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small> |Grandson of Baydu{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} |- |[[File:سکه آرپاخان.jpg|65px]] |[[Arpa Ke'un|Arpa Khan]] |1335–1336{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small> |Descendant of [[Tolui]], the father of Hulegu{{Sfn|Daryaee|2012|pp=395–396}} |- |[[File:Ilkhanids, Muhammad Khan (1337-1338) Dinar, Al-Jazira mint, Dated AH 737 (1336-1337).jpg|frameless|65x65px]] |[[Muhammad Khan (Ilkhan)|Muhammad Khan]] |1336–1338{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small> |Great-great-great-grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |[[File:Gold Dinar of Taghaytimur, Kashan, 739 H, 1338-1339.jpg|65px]] |[[Togha Temür]] |1337–1353<br /><small>(6 years)</small> |Descendant of [[Qasar]], a brother of Genghis Khan{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Jahan Temür]] |1338/1339–1340/1341{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small> |Grandson of Gaykhatu{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Sati Beg]] |1338/1339–1339/1340{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small> |Daughter of Öljaitü.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}} Fourth and last of only four women to rule in Iranian history.{{efn|The other three were [[Musa of Parthia|Musa]] (2 BC–AD 4), [[Boran]] (630), and [[Azarmidokht]] (630–631).}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Suleiman Khan]] |1339/1340 – 1343/1344{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=271}}<br /><small>(4 years)</small> |Great-great-grandson of Hulegu{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |[[File:Silver Dirham of Anushirwan, Tiflis, 1344-1353.jpg|65px]] |[[Anushirwan|Anushirwan Khan]] |1344–1356{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small> |Unknown lineage{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Ghazan II]] |1356–1357{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small> |Son of Togha Temür{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Luqman (ilkhan)|Luqman]] |1356{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=183}}–1388{{Sfn|Roemer|2001|p=29}}<br /><small>(32 years)</small> |Son of Togha Temür.{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=470}} Puppet ruler under various warlords, including [[Amir Vali]]{{Sfn|Jackson|2023|p=183}} and later [[Timur]].{{Sfn|Jackson|2017|p=383}} |} ==== Timurid Empire (1370–1458) ==== {{See also|Timurid Empire|Timurid dynasty}} [[File:Timurid Empire (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Timurid Empire]] under [[Timur]]|190px]] The Timurid Empire was established by [[Timur]], a conqueror who claimed both Turkic and Mongol descent. Timur began as a minor brigand chief under the [[Chagatai Khanate]].{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} In the middle 1360s, Timur rose to become the effective ruler of [[Transoxiana]]. He went on to establish his seat of power in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and conquered most of Iran through campaigns in the 1380s and 1390s.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} During his conquests, Timur made some effort to portray himself as the heir of the Ilkhanate, adopting the Ilkhanid title ''pādishāh-i Islām'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Islam}}).{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} Timur also used the style ''guregen'' ({{Literal translation|son-in-law}}) to stress his marriage to [[Saray Mulk Khanum]], a descendant of Genghis Khan.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=13}} ''Pādishāh'' continued to be used by Timur's successors, who at times also adopted the style of ''sulṭān''.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=13}} [[Samarkand]] was the capital of the Timurid Empire.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Timur reconstruction03.png|65px]] |[[Timur]] |9 April 1370 – 18 February 1405{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>({{Age in years, months and days|1370|4|9|1405|2|18}})</small> |Conquered Iran in the 1370s–1390s.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Pir Muhammad (son of Jahangir)|Pir Muhammad]] |February 1405 – 1407{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small> |Grandson of Timur{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} and his designated heir.{{Sfn|Ghiasian|2018|p=10}} Ruler in [[Fars province|Fars]].{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} |- |[[File:Contemporary drawing of Khalil Sultan, 1405-1406 (Ms. Diez A. fol.74, p.24) contoured.jpg|frameless|79x79px]] |[[Khalil Sultan]] |February 1405{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} – 1409/1410{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(4–5 years)</small> |Grandson of Timur.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} Senior Timurid ruler and ruler of Persia.{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} |- |[[File:Contemporary portrait of Shah Rukh, painted in his lifetime in 1435-36, by commission of his son Ibrahim Sultan.jpg|65px]] |[[Shah Rukh]] |February 1405{{sfn|Venning|2023b|loc=Timurid Dynasty}} – 1446/1447{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(41–42 years)</small> |Son of Timur. Initially only ruler in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]; ruler of the entire empire from 1415/1416 onwards.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |- |[[File:Ulugh Beg, Timurid painting 1425-50.jpg|65px]] |[[Ulugh Beg]] |1446/1447 – October/November 1449{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(2–3 years)</small> |Son of Shah Rukh{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Abdal-Latif Mirza]] |October/November 1449 – May 1450{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(6–7 months)</small> |Son of Ulugh Beg{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Abdullah Mirza]] |May 1450 – 1451/1452{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}<br /><small>(1–2 years)</small> |Grandson of Shah Rukh{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |- |[[File:Abu Said seated on a throne.png|65px]] |[[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] |1451/1452{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}}–1458{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}}<br /><small>(6–7 years)</small> |Great-grandson of Timur{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=536}} |} The Timurids lost almost all of their territories in Iran to the [[Qara Qoyunlu]] in 1452–1458.{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}} For later Timurid rulers in Khorasan and elsewhere, see [[Timurid Empire#Emperors (Emir)|Timurid Empire § Emperors (Emir)]]. ==== Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469) ==== {{See also|Qara Qoyunlu|List of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu}} [[File:Qara Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Qara Qoyunlu]] under [[Jahan Shah]]|190px]] The Qara Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] confederation that grew in power west of Iran following the collapse of the Ilkhanate. The origins of the Qara Qoyunlu are obscure and they are first recorded as an identifiable group in the 1330s.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=101}} Under the leader [[Jahan Shah]], the Qara Qoyunlu seized most of Iran from the Timurids. This began with the conquest of [[Jibal]] in 1452, and continued with further conquests of [[Isfahan]], [[Fars province|Fars]], and [[Kerman]] in 1458.{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}} The Qara Qoyunlu rulers presented themselves as rulers of Iran and political successors of the Ilkhanate, using titles such as ''pādishāh-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}) and ''kesra-yi Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] of Iran}}).{{Sfn|May|2012|p=83}} [[Tabriz]] served as the Qara Qoyunlu capital 1436–1467.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=154}} This list only includes the Qara Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran.{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} For a full list, see the [[list of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu]]. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Portrait of Jahan Shah Qara Qoyunlu.jpg|65px]] |[[Jahan Shah]] |1452–1467{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(15 years)</small> |Conquered much of Iran from the Timurid Empire in 1452–1458{{Sfn|Sicker|2000|p=172}} |- |[[File:Hasan Ali bin Cahan shah.jpg|65px]] |[[Hasan Ali (Qara Qoyunlu)|Hasan Ali]] |1467–1469{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small> |Son of Jahan Shah{{Sfn|Roemer|2001b|p=116}} |} ==== Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508) ==== {{See also|Aq Qoyunlu|List of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu}} [[File:Ag Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg|thumb|The [[Aq Qoyunlu]] under [[Uzun Hasan]]|190px]] Like the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] confederation that rose to power after the Ilkhanate's collapse. The Aq Qoyunlu was a more long-lived and better recorded group.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=101}} In the 1450s and 1460s, the Aq Qoyunlu under [[Uzun Hasan]] defeated both the Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid forces and by 1469, Uzun Hasan ruled all of Iraq and Iran.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}} Like the preceding Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu rulers titled themselves as ''pādishāh-i Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|emperor of Iran}}) and ''kesra-yi Īrān'' ({{Literal translation|[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] of Iran}}), among other titles.{{Sfn|May|2012|p=83}} [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]] was the original Aq Qoyunlu capital.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=104}} The capital was transferred to [[Tabriz]] under Uzun Hasan.{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}} This list only includes the Aq Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran.{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}} For a full list, see the [[list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu]]. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;" ! width="7%" |Portrait ! width="27%" |Name ! width="32%" |Reign ! width="34%" |Succession |- |[[File:Coin of Uzun Hasan, minted in Amed (Amid, Diyarbakır). Obverse.jpg|65px]] |[[Uzun Hasan]] |1465/1469–1478{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(9–13 years)</small> |Conquered Iran in the 1460s{{Sfn|Morgan|2013|p=105}} |- |[[File:Sultan Khalil of the Aq Qoyunlu 1478 (cropped).jpg|65px]] |[[Sultan-Khalil]] |1478{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(less than a year)</small> |Son of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |[[File:Soltan Yaʿqub Aq Qoyunlu and his weeping courtiers. Source- The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, MS Ouseley Add. 24, fol. 177r (cropped).jpg|65px]] |[[Yaqub (Aq Qoyunlu)|Yaqub]] |1478–1490{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(12 years)</small> |Son of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |[[File:Gold coin of the Aq Qoyunlu ruler Baysunghur, Tabriz mint.jpg|65px]] |[[Baysunghur (Aq Qoyunlu)|Baysunghur]] |1490–1492{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(2 years)</small> |Son of Yaqub{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |[[File:Coin of Sultan Rustam (Aq Qoyunlu).png|65px]] |[[Rustam Beg]] |1492–1496{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(4 years)</small> |Grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |[[File:Coin of Sultan Ahmad (Aq Qoyunlu).jpg|65px]] |[[Ahmad Beg]] |1496–1497{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(1 year)</small> |Grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |[[File:Coin of Sultan Alvand (Aq Qoyunlu).jpg|65px]] |[[Alvand Beg]] |1497–1502{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}<br /><small>(5 years, in [[Diyar Bakr]] and then [[Azerbaijan]])</small> |Grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Muhammad Beg]] |1499–1500{{Sfn|Truhart|1985|p=2043}}<br /><small>(1 year, in Iraq and southern Persia)</small> |Grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |[[File:The envoy Qanbar Aqa, sent by Shah Ismail I, before Sultan Murad Turkman. Mu'in Musavvir, Isfahan, circa 1670 (cropped).jpg|65px]] |[[Sultan Murad (Aq Qoyunlu)|Sultan Murad]] |1500–1508{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}<br /><small>(8 years, in [[Fars province|Fars]] and [[Kerman province|Kerman]])</small> |Son of Yaqub{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |- |{{Centre|—}} |[[Zayn al-Abidin (Aq Qoyunlu)|Zayn al-Abidin]] |1504–1508{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}}<br /><small>(4 years, in [[Diyar Bakr]])</small> |Great-grandson of Uzun Hasan{{Sfn|Bosworth|2012|p=275}} |} === Minor kingdoms and dynasties === * Various local Iranian dynasties in [[Tabaristan]]: ** [[Qarinvand dynasty]] (550s–11th century) ** [[Dabuyid dynasty]] (642–760) ** [[Bavand dynasty]] (651–1349) ** [[Baduspanids|Baduspanid dynasty]] (665–1598) ** [[Afrasiyab dynasty]] (1349–1504) * [[Ghurid dynasty]] (786–1215), which controlled parts of eastern Iran * Minor dynasties of the Iranian Intermezzo: ** [[Sajid dynasty]] (889–929) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan ** [[Rawadid dynasty]] (900–1070/1116) in Azerbaijan ** [[Sallarid dynasty]] (919–1062) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan ** The [[Ilyasids]] (932–968) in [[Kerman]] ** The [[Shaddadids]] (951–1199) in Armenia ** The [[Hasanwayhids]] (959–1015) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan ** The [[Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)|Marwanids]] (983/990–1084) in Mesopotamia ** The [[Annazids]] (990/991–late 12th century) in western Iran/eastern Iraq ** The [[Kakuyids]] (1008–1141) in central Iran * Minor successor states of the Ilkhanate: ** [[Kart dynasty]] (1244–1381) in much of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] ** The [[Muzaffarids (Iran)|Muzaffarids]] (1314–1393) in central and southern Iran ** The [[Injuids]] (1335–1357) in southern Iran ** [[Jalayirid Sultanate]] (1335–1432) in Iraq and western Iran ** The [[Sarbadars]] (1337–1381) in parts of Khorasan ** The [[Chobanids]] (1338–1357) in north-western Iran and Azerbaijan
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