Editing Kashubian language (section)

==Phonology==
The [[phonology|phonological]] system of the Kashubian language is similar in many ways to those of other [[Slavic languages]]. It is famous for [[:csb:Kaszëbienié|Kaszëbienié (Kashubization)]] and has a large [[vowel]] inventory, with 9 oral vowels and 2 nasal vowels.

===Vowel length===
[[Friedrich Lorentz]] argued that northern dialects had contrastive vowel length, but later studies showed that any phonemic length distinctions had disappeared by 1900. Any other vowel length is used for expressive purposes or is the result of syllable stress.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=19}} All traces of vowel length can now be seen in vowel alterations.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=61}}

===Syllable stress===
Kashubian features free placement of [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], and in some cases, mobile stress, and in northern dialects, unstressed syllables can result in [[vowel reduction]].{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=20}} An archaic word final stress is preserved in some two-syllable adjectives, adverbs, and regularly in the [[Comparison (grammar)|comparative degree]] of adverbs, in some infinitives and present and past tense forms, some nouns ending in ''-ô'', in [[diminutive]]s. ending in ''-ik''/''-yk'', nouns formed with ''-c'' and ''-k'', and some prepositional phrases with pronouns.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=20}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=38}}

Stress mobility can be observed in nouns, where in the singular the stress is initial, but in the plural it's on the final syllable of the stem, i.e. {{lang|csb|k'òlano}} but {{lang|csb|kòl'anami}}, and in some verb forms, i.e. {{lang|csb|k'ùpi}} vs {{lang|csb|kùp'ita}}. Some dialects have merged ''ë'' with ''e'', making the distinction contrastive. Most of this mobility is limited to morphology and stress has largely stabilized in Kashubian.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=20}}

Northern and central dialects show a much more limited mobility, as northern dialects show stabilization on initial stress, and central shows constant distance between the stressed syllable and the initial syllable of the word.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=20—21}} [[Proclitic]]s such as prepositions, pronouns, and grammatical particles such as {{lang|csb|nié}} may take initial stress.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=21}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=38}}

Eastern groups place accents on the penultimate syllable.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=24}}

The difference between southern and northern dialects dates as far back as the 14th—15th century and is the result of changes to the [[Proto-Slavic language#Phonology|Proto-Slavic vowel length system]].

===Phonological processes from Proto-Slavic===
# Retention of softness before ''-ar-'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|czwiôrtk}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|czwartek}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=22}}
# Proto-Slavic ''*-ъl-''/''*-ьl-'' -> ''-ôł-'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|kôłbasa}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|kiełbasa}}
## This change is somewhat archaic or lexicalized, appearing more in the North.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=22}}
# TelT -> TłoT: Kashubian {{lang|csb|młoc}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|mleć}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=23}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=37}}
# Retention of TarT, especially in the North: Kashubian {{lang|csb|bardówka}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|brodawka}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=23—24}}
## This feature is not regular and is somewhat archaic, even giving rise to archaizing neologisms such as Kashubian {{lang|csb|barń}} (from Kashubian {{lang|csb|bróń}}).
# Labialization of initial ''o-'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|òwca}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|owca}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=24}}
# So-called [[:csb:Kaszëbienié|Kaszëbienié (Kashubization)]], Proto-Slavic soft ''t''/''d''/''s''/''z'' initially to {{ipa|t͡ɕ, d͡ʑ, ɕ, ʑ}} and finally to {{ipa|t͡s, d͡z, s, z}}: Kashubian {{lang|csb|cëchò}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|cicho}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|chòdzëc}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|chodzić}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|swiat}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|świat}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|zëma}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|zima}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=24}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=30}}<ref>{{cite book |url= http://www.dialektologia.uw.edu.pl/index.php?l1=leksykon-kaszubski&lid=1150|title=Kaszubienie|last= Treder|first= Jerzy|editor=Małgorzata Klinkosz|year=2010  |website=Dialekty i gwary polskie |language=pl  |trans-title=Kashubization |isbn=978-83-62844-10-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130121258/http://www.dialektologia.uw.edu.pl/index.php?l1=leksykon-kaszubski&lid=1150 |archive-date=January 30, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=26}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=29}}
## This process occurred differently in the West, where soft ć/dź went to t/d{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=24}}
# Initial ''ra-'' -> ''re-'' and ''ja-'' -> ''je-'', however modern forms usually retain ''-a-'' Kashubian {{lang|csb|redło}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|radło}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|jerzmò}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|jarzmo}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=25}}
# Irregular change of ''-ar-'' -> ''-er-'', Kashubian {{lang|csb|żerlë}} alongside Kashubian {{lang|csb|żarła}} (from Kashubian {{lang|csb|żréc}}), vs Polish {{lang|pl|żarła}} (from Polish {{lang|pl|żreć}}).{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=25}}
# Regional retention of medial ''-t-'' in the word Kashubian {{lang|csb|sétmë}} ("seven") vs Polish {{lang|pl|siedem}} (compare Masurian Polish {{lang|pl|sziétém}}).{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=25}}
# Loss of mobile ''e'' through analysis of declined forms: Kashubian {{lang|csb|dómk}} (genitive singular Kashubian {{lang|csb|dómkù}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|domek}} (genitive singular Polish {{lang|pl|domku}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|matk}} (genitive plural of Kashubian {{lang|csb|matka}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|matek}} (genitive plural of Polish {{lang|pl|matka}}){{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=25—26}}
# An [[ablaut]] of ''e'':'''o'' after a soft consonant but before hard dentals: Kashubian {{lang|csb|wiezc}} (first person present singular Kashubian {{lang|csb|wiozã}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|wieźć}} (first person present singular Polish {{lang|pl|wiozę}}).{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=26}}
## This ablaut may occur also through analogy, i.e. Kashubian {{lang|csb|wiozlë}} (past virile l form of Kashubian {{lang|csb|wiezc}}), vs Polish {{lang|pl|wieźli}}.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=26}}
# Proto-Slavic ''ř'' -> rz {{ipa|r̝}}: Kashubian {{lang|csb|mòrze}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|morze}} (where rz in Polish is pronounced as a fricative {{ipa|ʐ}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=27}}) 
# ''-dz-'' -> ''-z-'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|cëzy}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|cudzy}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=27}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=34—35}}
## This feature is chiefly Northern, and often forms with ''-dz-'' dominate.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=27}}
# Lengthening (now a qualitative change) vowels of word-final closed syllables ending with an etymologically voiced consonant: Kashubian {{lang|csb|bóg}} (genitive singular Kashubian {{lang|csb|boga}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|bóg}} (genitive singular Polish {{lang|pl|boga}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|miała}} but Kashubian {{lang|csb|miôł}} (past feminine and masculine l-forms of Kashubian {{lang|csb|miec}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|miała}}/Polish {{lang|pl|miał}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|pana}} (genitive singular of Kashubian {{lang|csb|pón}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|pana}}/Polish {{lang|pl|pan}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|gniewu}} (genitive singular of Kashubian {{lang|csb|gniéw}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|gniewu}} (genitive singular of Polish {{lang|pl|gniew}}), Kashubian {{lang|csb|dëmù}} (genitive singular of Kashubian {{lang|csb|dim}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|dymu}} (genitive singular of Polish {{lang|pl|dym}}), Kashubian {{lang|csb|cëdu}} (genitive singular of Kashubian {{lang|csb|cud}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|cudu}} (genitive singular of Polish {{lang|pl|cud}}). Compare [[Old Polish#Phonology|Old Polish phonology]].{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=27}}
# Proto-Slavic ''*ę'' -> Early Kashubian ''į'' -> ''i'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|wzyc}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|wziąć}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=28}}
## This change was also effected by the change causing ''i'':''ë'' ablaut
# As a result of ''Kaszëbienié'', short ''i'' -> ''ë'' after ''s, z, c, dz'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|cëchò, chòdzëc, sëwi, zëma}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|cicho, chodzić, siwy, zima}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=28}}
# Short ''y''/''i'' after hard consonants -> ''ë'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|bëc, lëpa, przësc}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|być, lipa, prząść}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=30}}
# Soft ''k''/''g'' -> ''cz''/''dż'' or sometimes ''ć''/''dź'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|czedë}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|kiedy}}, Kashubian {{lang|csb|nodżi}} (genitive singular or nominative/accusative plural of Kashubian {{lang|csb|noga}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|nogi}} (genitive singular or nominative/accusative plural of Polish {{lang|pl|noga}}){{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=31}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=31}}
# ''[[Ł–l merger|Bëlaczenié]]'' in northern dialects, i.e. ''ł'' -> ''l'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|jaskùlëczka}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|jaskółeczka}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=31}}
# Hardening of ''ń'' -> ''n'' is southern Kashubian: Kashubian {{lang|csb|kónsczi}} (usually Kashubian {{lang|csb|kóńsczi}}) vs Polish {{lang|pl|koński}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=32}}
# [[Dissimilation]] of some consonant cluster such as ''kt'' -> ''cht'' or ''srz/zrz'' -> ''strz/zdrz'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|chto}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|kto}} and Kashubian {{lang|csb|strzoda, zdrzódło}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|środa, źródło}}.{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=33—34}}
# Reduction of some consonant clusters, especially in frequent words: Kashubian {{lang|csb|pierszi, baro}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|pierwszy, bardzo}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=34}}
# [[Prothesis (linguistics)|Prothesis]], particularly the insertion of ''j-'' before word initial ''i-'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|jistniec}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|istnieć}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=35—36}}
## Regional insertion of ''h-'' before word initial ''a-'': Kashubian {{lang|csb|(h)arfa}} vs Polish {{lang|pl|arfa}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=36}}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Kashubian vowel phonemes{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=33}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=18}}
! rowspan="2" |
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|unrounded}}
! colspan="2" | {{small|rounded}}
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ə}}
|
| {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| {{IPA link|ɞ}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|ä|a}}
|
|
|}
* The exact phonetic realization of the close-mid vowels {{IPA|/e, o/}} depends on the dialect.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=43}}
* Apart from these, there are also nasal vowels {{IPA|/ã, õ/}}. Their exact phonetic realization depends on the dialect.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=54—59}}
* {{ipa|/ɔ, u/}} diphthongize to {{ipa|/wɛ/, /wu/}} after ''p'', ''b'', ''k'', ''g'', and ''ch''.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=34}}

===Consonants===
Kashubian has simple consonants with a secondary articulation along with complex ones with secondary articulation.
{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Kashubian consonant phonemes{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=62}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=20—22}}
! colspan="2" |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n̪|n}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t̪|t}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d̪|d}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
|
| {{IPA link|t̪s̪|ts}}
| {{IPA link|tʃ}}
| ({{IPA link|tɕ}})
|
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|
| {{IPA link|d̪z̪|dz}}
| {{IPA link|dʒ}}
| ({{IPA link|dʑ}})
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s̪|s}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| ({{IPA link|ɕ}})
| {{IPA link|x}}
|-
! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA link|v}}
| {{IPA link|z̪|z}}
| {{IPA link|ʒ}}
| ({{IPA link|ʑ}})
|
|-
! {{small|trill}}
|
|
| ({{IPA link|r̝}})
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|}
* {{IPA|/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/}} are [[palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]].{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=62}}
* {{IPA|/ɲ, tɕ, dʑ, ɕ, ʑ/}} are [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]]; the last four appear only in some dialects.{{which|date=June 2024}}{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=68}}
* The fricative trill {{IPA|/r̝/}} is now used only by some northern and northeastern speakers; other speakers realize it as flat postalveolar {{IPAblink|ʐ}}.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=67}}
* The labialized velar central approximant {{IPA|/w/}} is realized as a velarized denti-alveolar lateral approximant {{IPAblink|ɫ̪}} by older speakers of southeastern dialects.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=70}}

===Voicing and devoicing===
Kashubian features the same system of voicing assimilation as [[Polish phonology#Voicing and devoicing|standard Polish]].{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=71}}{{sfn|Makùrôt|2016|pp=32—33}}

===Vocabulary===
German has been the source for most loanwords in Kashubian, with an estimated 5% of the vocabulary, as opposed to 3% in Polish.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=87}}

Kashubian, like other Slavic languages, has a rich system of derivational morphology, with prefixes, suffixes, deverbals, compounds, among others.{{sfn|Breza|Treder|1981|pp=88—89}}