Editing Kansas–Nebraska Act (section)

===Effect on Native American tribes===
Before the organization of the Kansas–Nebraska territory in 1854, the Kansas and Nebraska Territories were consolidated as part of the [[Indian Territory]]. Throughout the 1830s, large-scale relocations of Native American tribes to the Indian Territory took place, with many Southeastern nations removed to present-day [[Oklahoma]], a process ordered by the [[Indian Removal Act]] of 1830 and known as the [[Trail of Tears]], and many Midwestern nations removed by way of the treaty to present-day Kansas. Among the latter were the [[Shawnee]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sha0370.htm#mn2 |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2015-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207111123/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sha0370.htm#mn2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Lenape|Delaware]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/del0303.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2015-12-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213003430/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/del0303.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Kickapoo people|Kickapoo]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kic0182.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2015-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213020529/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kic0182.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Kaskaskia]] and [[Peoria tribe|Peoria]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kas0376.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2015-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207175054/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kas0376.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Iowa people|Ioway]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/iow0468.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2015-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207111057/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/iow0468.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Miami people|Miami]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/mia0531.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213012431/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/mia0531.htm |archive-date=2015-12-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The passing of the Kansas–Nebraska Act came into direct conflict with the relocations. White American settlers from both the free-soil North and pro-slavery South flooded the Northern Indian Territory, hoping to influence the vote on slavery that would come following the admittance of Kansas and, to a lesser extent, Nebraska to the United States.

To avoid and/or alleviate the reservation-settlement problem, further treaty negotiations were attempted with the tribes of Kansas and Nebraska. In 1854 alone, the U.S. agreed to acquire lands in Kansas or Nebraska from several tribes including the Kickapoo,<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kic0634.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061731/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kic0634.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Delaware,<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/del0614.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084025/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/del0614.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Omaha people|Omaha]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/oma0611.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182848/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/oma0611.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Shawnee,<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sha0618.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2016-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120233439/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol2/treaties/sha0618.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Otoe tribe|Otoe]] and [[Missouria|Missouri]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/oto0608.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115071956/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/oto0608.htm |archive-date=2016-01-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Miami,<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/mia0641.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2016-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115082708/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/mia0641.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and Kaskaskia and Peoria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kas0636.htm |website=digital.library.okstate.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2016-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114202638/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kas0636.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> In exchange for their land cessions, the tribes largely received small reservations in the Indian Territory of Oklahoma or Kansas in some cases.

For the nations that remained in Kansas beyond 1854, the Kansas–Nebraska Act introduced a host of other problems. In 1855, white "[[squatting|squatters]]" built the city of [[Leavenworth, Kansas|Leavenworth]] on the Delaware reservation without the consent of either Delaware or the US government. When Commissioner of [[Bureau of Indian Affairs|Indian Affairs]] [[George Washington Manypenny|George Manypenny]] ordered military support in removing the squatters, both the military and the squatters refused to comply, undermining both Federal authority and the treaties in place with Delaware.<ref>George W. Manypenny, ''Our Indian Wards'' (1880) 123–124</ref> In addition to the violations of treaty agreements, other promises made were not being kept. Construction and infrastructure improvement projects dedicated to nearly every treaty, for example, took a great deal longer than expected. Beyond that, however, the most damaging violation by white American settlers was the mistreatment of Native Americans and their properties. Personal maltreatment, stolen property, and [[deforestation]] have all been cited.<ref>George W. Manypenny, ''Our Indian Wards'' (1880) 127</ref> Furthermore, the squatters' premature and illegal settlement of the Kansas Territory jeopardized the value of the land, and with it the future of the Indian tribes living on them. Because treaties were land cessions and purchases, the value of the land handed over to the Federal government was critical to the payment received by a given Native nation. Deforestation, destruction of property, and other general injuries to the land lowered the value of the territories that were ceded by the Kansas Territory tribes.<ref>{{cite web |title=History: Annual report of the commissioner of Indian affairs, for the year 1855: [Central superintendency] |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=goto&id=History.AnnRep55&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=109 |website=digicoll.library.wisc.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2015-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222234545/http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=goto&id=History.AnnRep55&isize=M&submit=Go%20to%20page&page=109 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Manypenny's 1856 "Report on Indian Affairs" explained the devastating effect on Indian populations of diseases that white settlers brought to Kansas. Without providing statistics, Indian Affairs Superintendent to the area Colonel Alfred Cumming reported at least more deaths than births in most tribes in the area. While noting intemperance, or [[alcoholism]], as a leading cause of death, Cumming specifically cited [[cholera]], [[smallpox]], and [[measles]], none of which the Native Americans were able to treat.<ref>{{cite web |title=History: Annual report of the commissioner of Indian affairs, for the year 1856: [Central superintendency] |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=turn&entity=History.AnnRep56.p0072&id=History.AnnRep56&isize=M |website=digicoll.library.wisc.edu |access-date=2015-12-14 |archive-date=2015-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222084144/http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=turn&entity=History.AnnRep56.p0072&id=History.AnnRep56&isize=M |url-status=live }}</ref> The disastrous epidemics exemplified the [[Osage Nation|Osage]] people, who lost an estimated 1300 lives to [[scurvy]], measles, smallpox, and [[scrofula]] between 1852 and 1856,<ref name="Louis F. Burns 2004">Louis F. Burns, ''A History of the Osage People'' (2004) 239</ref> contributing, in part, to the massive decline in population, from 8000 in 1850 to just 3500 in 1860.<ref name="ReferenceA">Louis F. Burns, ''A History of the Osage People'' (2004) 243</ref> The Osage had already encountered epidemics associated with relocation and white settlement. The initial removal acts in the 1830s brought both White American settlers and foreign Native American tribes to the Great Plains and into contact with the Osage people. Between 1829 and 1843, [[influenza]], cholera, and smallpox killed an estimated 1242 Osage Indians,<ref name="Louis F. Burns 2004"/> resulting in a population recession of roughly 20 percent between 1830 and 1850.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>