Editing Kanji (section)

==Readings==
{{Cleanup section|date=March 2022|reason=Overly verbose 'readings' section|talk=Cleaning up the mess}}
Individual kanji may be used to write one or more different words or [[morphemes]], leading to different pronunciations or "readings." The correct reading may be determined by contextual cues (such as whether the character represents part of a compound word versus an independent word), the exact intended meaning of the word, and its position within the sentence. For example, {{lang|ja|今日}} is mostly read {{translit|ja|kyō}}, meaning "today", but in formal writing it is read {{translit|ja|konnichi}}, meaning "nowadays". {{translit|ja|[[Furigana]]}} is used to specify ambiguous readings, such as rare, literary, or otherwise non-standard readings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Verdonschot |first1=R. G. |last2=La Heij |first2=W. |last3=Tamaoka |first3=K. |last4=Kiyama |first4=S. |last5=You |first5=W. P. |last6=Schiller |first6=N. O. |year=2013 |title=The multiple pronunciations of Japanese kanji: A masked priming investigation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236062398 |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology |volume=66 |issue=10 |pages=2023–38 |doi=10.1080/17470218.2013.773050 |pmid=23510000 |s2cid=13845935|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Readings are categorized as either {{Nihongo|kun'yomi|訓読み|literally "meaning reading"}}, native Japanese, or {{Nihongo|on'yomi|音読み|literally "sound reading"}}, borrowed from Chinese. Most kanji have at least a single reading of each category, though some have only one, such as {{Nihongo||菊|kiku|"chrysanthemum", an {{translit|ja|on}}-reading}} or {{Nihongo||鰯|iwashi|"sardine", a {{translit|ja|kun}}-reading}}; Japanese-coined kanji ({{translit|ja|kokuji}}) often only have {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} readings.

Some common kanji have ten or more possible readings; the most complex common example is {{lang|ja|[[Okurigana#生|生]]}}, which is read as {{translit|ja|sei}}, {{translit|ja|shō}}, {{translit|ja|nama}}, {{translit|ja|ki}}, {{translit|ja|o-u}}, {{translit|ja|i-kiru}}, {{translit|ja|i-kasu}}, {{translit|ja|i-keru}}, {{translit|ja|u-mu}}, {{translit|ja|u-mareru}}, {{translit|ja|ha-eru}}, and {{translit|ja|ha-yasu}}, totaling eight basic readings (the first two are {{translit|ja|on}}, while the rest are {{translit|ja|kun}}), or 12 if related verbs are counted as distinct.

==={{translit|ja|On'yomi}} (Sino-Japanese reading) ===
{{Main|On'yomi}}
The {{Nihongo||音読み|'''on'yomi'''|{{IPA|ja|oɰ̃jomi|}}, {{lit.}} "sound(-based) reading"}}, the [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Sino-Japanese]] reading, is the modern descendant of the Japanese approximation of the base Chinese pronunciation of the character at the time it was introduced. It was often previously referred to as '''translation reading''', as it was recreated readings of the Chinese pronunciation but was not the Chinese pronunciation or reading itself, similar to the English pronunciation of Latin loanwords. There also exist kanji created by the Japanese and given an {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} reading despite not being a Chinese-derived or a Chinese-originating character. Some kanji were introduced from different parts of China at different times, and so have multiple {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}, and often multiple meanings. Kanji invented in Japan ({{translit|ja|[[kokuji]]}}) would not normally be expected to have {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}, but there are exceptions, such as the character {{Nihongo2|働}} "to work", which has the {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} "{{translit|ja|hatara(ku)}}" and the {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} "{{translit|ja|dō}}", and {{Nihongo2|腺}} "gland", which has only the {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} "{{translit|ja|sen}}"—in both cases these come from the {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} of the phonetic component, respectively {{Nihongo2|動}} "{{translit|ja|dō}}" and {{Nihongo2|泉}} "{{translit|ja|sen}}".

=== {{translit|ja|Kun'yomi}} (native reading) ===
{{Main|Kun'yomi}}
The {{Nihongo||訓読み|'''kun'yomi'''|{{IPA|ja|kɯɰ̃jomi|}}, {{abbr|lit.|literally}} "meaning reading"}}, the native reading, is a reading based on the pronunciation of a native [[Japanese language|Japanese]] word, or {{translit|ja|[[yamato kotoba]]}}, that closely approximated the meaning of the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] character when it was introduced. As with {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}, there can be multiple {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} for the same kanji, and some kanji have no {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} at all.

==={{translit|ja|Ateji}}===
{{Main|Ateji}}
{{Nihongo||当て字|'''Ateji'''}} are characters used only for their sounds. In this case, pronunciation is still based on a standard reading, or used only for meaning (broadly a form of {{translit|ja|ateji}}, narrowly {{translit|ja|jukujikun}}). Therefore, only the full compound—not the individual character—has a reading. There are also [[#Special readings|special cases]] where the reading is completely different, often based on a historical or traditional reading.

The analogous phenomenon occurs to a much lesser degree in [[varieties of Chinese|Chinese varieties]], where there are [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]—borrowed readings and native readings. In Chinese these borrowed readings and native readings are etymologically related, since they are between Chinese varieties (which are related), not from Chinese to Japanese (which are not related). They thus form [[Doublet (linguistics)|doublets]] and are generally similar, analogous to different {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}, reflecting different stages of Chinese borrowings into Japanese.

===Gairaigo===
Longer readings exist for non-{{translit|ja|Jōyō}} characters and non-kanji symbols, where a long [[gairaigo]] word may be the reading (this is classed as {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}—see [[#Single character gairaigo|single character gairaigo]], below)—the character {{Nihongo2|糎}} has the seven {{translit|ja|kana}} reading {{lang|ja-Kana|センチメートル}} {{translit|ja|senchimētoru}} "centimeter", though it is generally written as "cm" (with two half-width characters, so occupying one space); another common example is '%' (the percent sign), which has the five kana reading {{lang|ja-Kana|パーセント}} {{translit|ja|pāsento}}.

===Mixed readings {{anchor|jūbako|juubako|jubako|yutō|yutou|yuto}} ===
[[File:Jūbako.jpg|thumb|A {{Nihongo||重箱|jūbako}}, which has a mixed {{translit|ja|on-kun}} reading]]
[[File:Pail,yutou,soba-yu,katori-city,japan.JPG|thumb|A {{Nihongo||湯桶|yutō}}, which has a mixed {{translit|ja|kun-on}} reading]]
There are many kanji compounds that use a mixture of {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} and {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}; these may be considered [[hybrid word]]s. Readings in which the first kanji is ''on'yomi'' and the second is ''kun'yomi'' are classified as {{Nihongo||重箱読み|jūbakoyomi|multi-layered food box reading}}, while ''kun-on'' words are classified as {{Nihongo||湯桶読み|yutōyomi|hot liquid pail reading}}. The words ''jūbako'' and ''yutō'' are themselves examples of the reading patterns they represent (they are [[autological word]]s). Other examples include {{nihongo||場所|basho|"place", {{translit|ja|kun-on}}}}, {{nihongo||金色|kin'iro|"golden", {{translit|ja|on-kun}}}} and {{nihongo||合気道|aikidō|the martial art [[Aikido]]", {{translit|ja|kun-on-on}}}}.

{{translit|ja|[[Ateji]]}} often use mixed readings. For instance, the city of [[Sapporo]] ({{lang|ja|サッポロ}}), whose name derives from the [[Ainu language]] and has no meaning in Japanese, is written with the {{translit|ja|on-kun}} compound {{nihongo|札幌||sapporo}} (which includes {{translit|ja|[[sokuon]]}} as if it were a purely {{translit|ja|on}} compound).

===Special readings===
{{Nihongo|''Gikun''|[[:wikt:義訓#Japanese|義訓]]}} and {{Nihongo|''jukujikun''|[[:wikt:熟字訓#Japanese|熟字訓]]}} are readings of kanji combinations that have no direct correspondence to the characters' individual {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} or {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}. From the point of view of the character, rather than the word, this is known as a {{Nihongo|''nankun''|[[:wikt:難訓#Japanese|難訓]]||"difficult reading"}}, and these are listed in kanji dictionaries under the entry for the character.

{{translit|ja|Gikun}} are other readings assigned to a character instead of its standard readings. An example is reading {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:寒#Japanese|寒]]}} (meaning "cold") as {{translit|ja|fuyu}} ("winter") rather than the standard readings {{translit|ja|samu}} or {{translit|ja|kan}}, and instead of the usual spelling for {{translit|ja|fuyu}} of {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:冬#Japanese|冬]]}}. Another example is using {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:煙草#Japanese|煙草]]}} ({{lit|smoke grass}}) with the reading {{translit|ja|tabako}} ("tobacco") rather than the otherwise-expected readings of {{translit|ja|*kemuri-gusa}} or {{translit|ja|*ensō}}. Some of these, such as for {{translit|ja|tabako}}, have become [[lexicalized]], but in many cases this kind of use is typically non-standard and employed in specific contexts by individual writers. Aided with {{translit|ja|[[furigana]]}}, {{translit|ja|gikun}} could be used to convey complex literary or poetic effect (especially if the readings contradict the kanji), or clarification if the referent may not be obvious.

{{translit|ja|Jukujikun}} are when the standard kanji for a word are related to the meaning, but not the sound. The word is pronounced as a whole, not corresponding to sounds of individual kanji. For example, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:今朝#Japanese|今朝]]}} ("this morning") is {{translit|ja|jukujikun}}. This word is not read as {{translit|ja|*ima'asa}}, the expected {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} of the characters, and only infrequently as {{translit|ja|konchō}}, the {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} of the characters. The most common reading is {{translit|ja|kesa}}, a native bisyllabic Japanese word that may be seen as a single [[morpheme]], or as a compound of {{translit|ja|ke}} (“this”, as in {{translit|ja|kefu}}, the older reading for {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:今日#Japanese|今日]]}}, “today”), and {{translit|ja|asa}}, “morning”.<ref>{{cite web |date=March 26, 2006 |title=''Gogen Yurai Jiten'' |script-title=ja:語源由来辞典 |trans-title=Etymology Derivation Dictionary |url=https://gogen-yurai.jp/kyou/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209200052/https://gogen-yurai.jp/kyou/ |archive-date=February 9, 2022 |access-date=2022-02-09 |publisher=Lookvise, Inc. |language=ja |quote= |script-quote=ja:「けふ」の「け」は、「今朝（けさ）」と同じ「け」で、「こ（此）」の意味。 |trans-quote=The {{translit|ja|ke}} in {{translit|ja|kefu}} is the same {{translit|ja|ke}} as in {{translit|ja|kesa}}, meaning "this".}}</ref> Likewise, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:今日#Japanese|今日]]}} ("today") is also {{translit|ja|jukujikun}}, usually read with the native reading {{translit|ja|kyō}}; its {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}, {{translit|ja|konnichi}}, does occur in certain words and expressions, especially in the broader sense "nowadays" or "current", such as {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:今日的#Japanese|今日的]]}} ("present-day"), although in the phrase {{translit|ja|konnichi wa}} ("good day"), {{translit|ja|konnichi}} is typically spelled wholly with {{translit|ja|hiragana}} rather than with the kanji {{Nihongo2|今日}}.

{{translit|ja|Jukujikun}} are primarily used for some native Japanese words, such as [[Yamato (disambiguation)|Yamato]]<!-- intentional link to DAB page--> ({{lang|ja|[[:wikt:大和#Japanese|大和]]}} or {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:倭#Japanese|倭]]}}, the name of the dominant ethnic group of Japan, a former Japanese province as well as ancient name for Japan), and for some old borrowings, such as {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:柳葉魚#Japanese|柳葉魚]]}} ({{translit|ja|[[shishamo]]}}, literally "willow leaf fish") from Ainu, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:煙草#Japanese|煙草]]}} ({{translit|ja|tabako}}, literally “smoke grass”) from Portuguese, or {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:麦酒#Japanese|麦酒]]}} ({{translit|ja|bīru}}, literally “wheat alcohol”) from Dutch, especially if the word was borrowed before the [[Meiji period]]. Words whose kanji are {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} are often usually written as {{translit|ja|hiragana}} (if native), or {{translit|ja|katakana}} (if borrowed); some old borrowed words are also written as {{translit|ja|hiragana}}, especially Portuguese loanwords such as {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:かるた#Japanese|かるた]]}} ({{translit|ja|karuta}}) from Portuguese "{{lang|pt|[[:wikt:carta#Portuguese|carta]]}}" (English “card”) or {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:てんぷら#Japanese|てんぷら]]}} ({{translit|ja|tempura}}) from Portuguese "{{lang|pt|[[:wikt:tempora#Portuguese|tempora]]}}" (English “times, season”),{{cn|date=February 2021}} as well as {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:たばこ#Japanese|たばこ]]}} ({{translit|ja|tabako}}).

Sometimes, {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} can even have more kanji than there are syllables, examples being {{translit|ja|kera}} ({{lang|ja|[[:wikt:啄木鳥#Japanese|啄木鳥]]}}, “woodpecker”), {{translit|ja|gumi}} ({{lang|ja|[[:wikt:胡頽子#Japanese|胡頽子]]}}, “silver berry, oleaster”),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://japanese.stackexchange.com/questions/29056/how-many-possible-phonological-forms-could-be-represented-by-a-randomly-chosen-s|title=How many possible phonological forms could be represented by a randomly chosen single character?|website=japanese.stackexchange.com|access-date=2017-07-15|archive-date=June 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622083908/https://japanese.stackexchange.com/questions/29056/how-many-possible-phonological-forms-could-be-represented-by-a-randomly-chosen-s|url-status=live}}</ref> and {{translit|ja|Hozumi}} ({{lang|ja|[[:wikt:八月朔日#Japanese|八月朔日]]}}, a surname).<ref name="How do Japanese names work">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/names-for-people.html|title=How do Japanese names work?|website=www.sljfaq.org|language=en|access-date=2017-11-14|archive-date=June 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622111518/https://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/names-for-people.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This phenomenon is observed in animal names that are shortened and used as suffixes for zoological compound names, for example when {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:黄金虫#Japanese|黄金虫]]}}, normally read as {{translit|ja|koganemushi}}, is shortened to {{translit|ja|kogane}} in {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:黒黄金虫#Japanese|黒黄金虫]]}} {{translit|ja|kurokogane}}, although zoological names are commonly spelled with katakana rather than with kanji. Outside zoology, this type of shortening only occurs on a handful of words, for example {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:大元帥#Japanese|大元帥]]}} {{translit|ja|daigen(sui)}}, or the historical male name suffix {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:右衛門#Japanese|右衛門]]}} {{translit|ja|-emon}}, which was shortened from the word {{translit|ja|uemon}}.

The kanji compound for {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} is often idiosyncratic and created for the word, and there is no corresponding Chinese word with that spelling. In other cases, a kanji compound for an existing Chinese word is reused, where the Chinese word and {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} may or may not be used in Japanese. For example, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:馴鹿#Japanese|馴鹿]]}} (“reindeer”) is {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} for {{translit|ja|tonakai}}, from Ainu, but the {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} reading of {{translit|ja|junroku}} is also used. In some cases, Japanese coinages have subsequently been [[Wasei-kango|borrowed back into Chinese]], such as {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:鮟鱇#Japanese|鮟鱇]]}} ({{translit|ja|ankō}}, “[[monkfish]]”).

The underlying word for {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} is a native Japanese word or foreign borrowing, which either does not have an existing kanji spelling (either {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} or {{translit|ja|ateji}}) or for which a new kanji spelling is produced. Most often the word is a noun, which may be a simple noun (not a compound or derived from a verb), or may be a verb form or a fusional pronunciation. For example, the word {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:相撲#Japanese|相撲]]}} ({{translit|ja|sumō}}, “[[sumo]]”) is originally from the verb {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:争う#Japanese|争う]]}} ({{translit|ja|sumau}}, “to vie, to compete”), while {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:今日#Japanese|今日]]}} ({{translit|ja|kyō}}, “today”) is fusional (from older {{translit|ja|ke}}, “this” + {{translit|ja|fu}}, “day”).

In rare cases, {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} is also applied to inflectional words (verbs and adjectives), in which case there is frequently a corresponding Chinese word. The most common example of an inflectional {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} is the adjective {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:可愛い#Japanese|可愛い]]}} ({{translit|ja|kawai-i}}, “cute”), originally {{translit|ja|kawafayu-i}}; the word {{Nihongo||{{linktext|可愛}}}} is used in [[Chinese language|Chinese]], but the corresponding {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} is not used in Japanese. By contrast, "appropriate" can be either {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:相応しい#Japanese|相応しい]]}} ({{translit|ja|fusawa-shii}}, as {{translit|ja|jukujikun}}) or {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:相応#Japanese|相応]]}} ({{translit|ja|sōō}}, as {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}). Which reading to use can be discerned by the presence or absence of the {{translit|ja|-shii}} ending ({{translit|ja|[[okurigana]]}}). A common example of a verb with {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} is {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:流行る#Japanese|流行る]]}} ({{translit|ja|haya-ru}}, “to spread, to be in vogue”), corresponding to {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:流行#Japanese|流行]]}} ({{translit|ja|ryūkō}}). A sample {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} deverbal (noun derived from a verb form) is {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:強請#Japanese|強請]]}} ({{translit|ja|yusuri}}, “extortion”), from {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:強請る#Japanese|強請る]]}} ({{translit|ja|yusu-ru}}, “to extort”), spelling from {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:強請#Japanese|強請]]}} ({{translit|ja|kyōsei}}, “extortion”). Note that there are also compound verbs and, less commonly, compound adjectives, and while these may have multiple kanji without intervening characters, they are read using the usual {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}. Examples include {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:面白い#Japanese|面白い]]}} ({{translit|ja|omo-shiro-i}}, “interesting”, literally “face + white”) and {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:狡賢い#Japanese|狡賢い]]}} ({{translit|ja|zuru-gashiko-i}}, “sly”, {{Lit|}} “cunning, crafty + clever, smart”).

Typographically, the {{translit|ja|[[furigana]]}} for {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} are often written so they are centered across the entire word, or for inflectional words over the entire root—corresponding to the reading being related to the entire word—rather than each part of the word being centered over its corresponding character, as is often done for the usual phono-semantic readings.

Broadly speaking, {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} can be considered a form of {{translit|ja|[[ateji]]}}, though in narrow usage, "{{translit|ja|ateji}}" refers specifically to using characters for sound and not meaning (sound-spelling), whereas "{{translit|ja|jukujikun}}" refers to using characters for their meaning and not sound (meaning-spelling). Many {{translit|ja|jukujikun}} (established meaning-spellings) began as {{translit|ja|gikun}} (improvised meaning-spellings). Occasionally, a single word will have many such kanji spellings. An extreme example is {{nihongo|||hototogisu|[[Lesser Cuckoo|lesser cuckoo]]}}, which may be spelt in many ways, including {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:杜鵑#Japanese|杜鵑]]}}, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:時鳥#Japanese|時鳥]]}}, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:子規#Japanese|子規]]}}, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:不如帰#Japanese|不如帰]]}}, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:霍公鳥#Japanese|霍公鳥]]}}, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:蜀魂#Japanese|蜀魂]]}}, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:沓手鳥#Japanese|沓手鳥]]}}, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:杜宇#Japanese|杜宇]]}},{{lang|ja|[[:wikt:田鵑#Japanese|田鵑]]}}, {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:沓直鳥#Japanese|沓直鳥]]}}, and {{lang|ja|[[:wikt:郭公#Japanese|郭公]]}}—many of these variant spellings are particular to [[haiku]] poems.

===Single character gairaigo===
In some rare cases, kanji may have a reading borrowed from a modern foreign language (''[[gairaigo]]''), though usually ''gairaigo'' are written in {{translit|ja|katakana}}. Notable examples include {{nihongo||頁、ページ|pēji|page}}, {{nihongo||釦／鈕、ボタン|botan|button}}, {{nihongo||零、ゼロ|zero|zero}}, and {{nihongo||米、メートル|mētoru|meter}}. These are classed as {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}, because the character is used for its meaning—the ''kun'yomi'' label may sometimes be misleading, since most ''kun'yomi'' are native Japanese readings. The readings are also rendered in {{translit|ja|katakana}}, unlike the usual {{translit|ja|hiragana}} for native {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}. Note that most of these characters are for units, particularly [[SI units]], in many cases using new characters ({{translit|ja|[[kokuji]]}}) coined during the [[Meiji period]], such as {{nihongo||粁、キロメートル|kiromētoru|kilometer, {{Nihongo2|米}} "meter" + {{Nihongo2|千}} "thousand"}}.

==={{translit|ja|Nanori}}===
{{Main|Nanori}}
Some kanji also have lesser-known readings called {{Nihongo||名乗り|[[nanori]]}}, which are mostly used for names (often [[given name]]s) and, in general, are closely related to the {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}. Place names sometimes also use {{translit|ja|nanori}} or, occasionally, unique readings not found elsewhere.

===When to use which reading===
Although there are general rules for when to use {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} and when to use {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}, many kanji have multiple on- or kun-readings, and the language is littered with exceptions; how a character was meant to be read is sometimes ambiguous even to native speakers (this is especially true for names, both of people and places). 

A single kanji followed by {{translit|ja|okurigana}} ({{translit|ja|hiragana}} forming part of a word)—such as the inflectable suffixes forming native verbs and adjectives like 赤い (''akai''; red) and 見る (''miru''; to see)—''always'' indicates {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}. {{translit|ja|Okurigana}} can indicate which {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} to use, as in {{Nihongo2|食べる}} ({{translit|ja|ta-beru}}) versus {{Nihongo2|食う}} ({{translit|ja|ku-u}}), both meaning "(to) eat", but this is not always sufficient, as in {{Nihongo2|開く}}, which may be read as {{translit|ja|a-ku}} or {{translit|ja|hira-ku}}, both meaning "(to) open".

{{anchor|jukugo|multi-kanji compound words}}
Kanji compounds ({{translit|ja|jukuji}}), especially [[yojijukugo]], usually, but not always, use {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}, usually (but not always) {{translit|ja|kan-on}}. In {{Nihongo||解毒|ge-doku|detoxification, anti-poison}}, 解 is read with its ''kan-on'' reading instead of its more common ''go-on'' reading, {{translit|ja|kai}}. Exceptions are common—{{Nihongo2|情報}} ({{translit|ja|jōhō}}; information), for example, is ''go-kan''. {{Nihongo2|牛肉}} ({{translit|ja|gyū-niku}}; beef) and {{Nihongo2|羊肉}} ({{translit|ja|yō-niku}}; mutton) have {{translit|ja|on-on}} readings, but {{Nihongo2|豚肉}} ({{translit|ja|buta-niku}}; pork) and {{Nihongo2|鶏肉}} ({{translit|ja|tori-niku}}; poultry) have {{translit|ja|kun-on}} readings. Examples of fully ''kun'yomi'' compounds include {{Nihongo2|手紙}} ({{translit|ja|tegami}}; letter), {{Nihongo2|日傘}} ({{translit|ja|higasa}}; parasol), and the infamous {{Nihongo2|神風}} ({{translit|ja|[[kamikaze]]}}; divine wind). Some ''kun'yomi'' compounds have non-inflective {{translit|ja|okurigana}}, such as {{Nihongo2|唐揚げ}} ({{translit|ja|karaage}}; Chinese-style fried chicken) and {{Nihongo2|折り紙}} ({{translit|ja|[[origami]]}}); many can also be written with the {{translit|ja|okurigana}} omitted. 

Kanji in isolation are typically read using their {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}; exceptions include the ''on'yomi'' {{Nihongo2|愛}} ({{translit|ja|ai}}; love), {{Nihongo2|禅}} ({{translit|ja|[[Zen]]}}), and {{Nihongo2|点}} ({{translit|ja|ten}}; mark, dot). Most of these ''on'yomi'' cases involve kanji that have no {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}. For kanji with multiple common isolated readings, such as {{Nihongo2|金}}, which may be read as {{translit|ja|kin}} (gold) or {{translit|ja|kane}} (money, metal), only context can determine the intended reading. 

The isolated kanji versus compound distinction gives words for similar concepts completely different pronunciations. Alone, {{Nihongo2|北}} (north) and {{Nihongo2|東}} (east) use the {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} {{translit|ja|kita}} and {{translit|ja|higashi}}, but {{Nihongo2|北東}} (northeast), uses the {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} {{translit|ja|hokutō}}. Inconsistencies also occur between compounds; {{Nihongo2|生}} is read as {{translit|ja|sei}} in {{Nihongo2|先生}} ({{translit|ja|sensei}}; teacher) but as {{translit|ja|shō}} in {{Nihongo2|一生}} ({{translit|ja|isshō}}; one's whole life) (both ''on'yomi''). 

Multiple readings have given rise to a number of [[homograph]]s, in some cases having different meanings depending on how they are read. One example is {{Nihongo2|上手}}, which can be read in three different ways: {{translit|ja|jōzu}} (skilled), {{translit|ja|uwate}} (upper part), or {{translit|ja|kamite}} ([[Blocking (stage)#Stage directions|stage left/house right]]). In addition, {{Nihongo2|上手い}} has the reading {{translit|ja|umai}} (skilled). More subtly, {{Nihongo2|明日}} has three different readings, all meaning "tomorrow": {{translit|ja|ashita}} (casual), {{translit|ja|asu}} (polite), and {{translit|ja|myōnichi}} (formal).

Conversely, some terms are homophonous but not homographic, and thus ambiguous in speech but not in writing. To remedy this, alternate readings may be used for confusable words. For example, {{Nihongo2|私立}} (privately established, esp. school) and {{Nihongo2|市立}} (municipal) are both normally pronounced {{translit|ja|shi-ritsu}}; in speech these may be distinguished by the alternative pronunciations {{translit|ja|watakushi-ritsu}} and {{translit|ja|ichi-ritsu}}. More informally, in legal jargon {{Nihongo2|前文}} (preamble) and {{Nihongo2|全文}} (full text) are both pronounced {{translit|ja|zen-bun}}, so {{Nihongo2|前文}} may be pronounced {{translit|ja|mae-bun}} for clarity, as in "Have you memorized the preamble [not 'whole text'] of the constitution?". As in these examples, this is primarily done using a {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} for one character in a normally {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} term.

====Legalese====
Certain words take different readings depending on whether the context concerns legal matters or not. For example:
{| class="wikitable"
!scope="col"| Word
!scope="col"| Common reading
!scope="col"| Legalese reading
|-
|{{lang|ja|懈怠}} ("negligence")<ref name="DJR">{{translit|ja|[[Daijirin]]}}</ref>
|{{translit|ja|ketai}}
|{{translit|ja|kaitai}}
|-
|{{lang|ja|競売}} ("auction")<ref name="DJR"/>
|{{translit|ja|kyōbai}}
|{{translit|ja|keibai}}
|-
|{{lang|ja|兄弟姉妹}} ("siblings")
|{{translit|ja|kyōdai shimai}}
|{{translit|ja|keitei shimai}}
|-
|{{lang|ja|境界}} ("metes and bounds")
|{{translit|ja|kyōkai}}
|{{translit|ja|keikai}}
|-
|{{lang|ja|競落}} ("acquisition at an auction")<ref name="DJR"/>
|{{translit|ja|kyōraku}}
|{{translit|ja|keiraku}}
|-
|{{lang|ja|遺言}} ("will")<ref name="DJR"/>
|{{translit|ja|yuigon}}
|{{translit|ja|igon}}
|-
|{{lang|ja|図画}} ("imagery")<ref>''[[Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary]]''</ref>
|{{translit|ja|zuga}}
|{{translit|ja|toga}}{{efn|Particularly in {{nihongo|"obscene imagery"|猥褻図画|waisetsu toga}}.}}
|}

===Ambiguous readings===
In some instances where even context cannot easily provide clarity for [[homophone]]s, alternative readings or mixed readings can be used instead of regular readings to avoid ambiguity. For example:
{| class="wikitable"
!scope="col"| Ambiguous reading
!scope="col"| Disambiguated readings
|-
|{{translit|ja|baishun}}
|{{nihongo|''baishun''|売春|extra="selling sex", on}}

{{nihongo|''kaishun''|買春|extra="buying sex", yutō}}<ref name="KJE">{{translit|ja|[[Kōjien]]}}</ref>
|-
|{{translit|ja|itoko}}
|{{nihongo|''jūkeitei''|従兄弟|extra="male cousin", on}}

{{nihongo|''jūshimai''|従姉妹|extra="female cousin", on}}

{{nihongo|''jūkei''|従兄|extra="older male cousin", on}}

{{nihongo|''jūshi''|従姉|extra="older female cousin", on}}

{{nihongo|''jūtei''|従弟|extra="younger male cousin", on}}

{{nihongo|''jūmai''|従妹|extra="younger female cousin", on}}
|-
|{{translit|ja|jiten}}
|{{nihongo|''kotobaten''|辞典|extra="word dictionary", yutō}}<ref name="KJE"/>

{{nihongo|''kototen''|事典|extra="encyclopedia", yutō}}<ref name="KJE"/><ref name="DJR"/>

{{nihongo|''mojiten''|字典|extra="character dictionary", irregular, from {{nihongo|''moji''|文字|extra="character"}}}}<ref name="KJE"/>
|-
|{{translit|ja|kagaku}}
|{{nihongo|''kagaku''|科学|extra="science", on}}

{{nihongo|''bakegaku''|化学|extra="chemistry", yutō}}<ref name="KJE"/><ref name="DJR"/>
|-
|{{translit|ja|karyō}}
|{{nihongo|''ayamachiryō''|過料|extra="administrative fine", yutō}}<ref name="KJE">{{translit|ja|[[Kōjien]]}}</ref><ref name="DJR"/>

{{nihongo|''togaryō''|科料|extra="misdemeanor fine", yutō}}<ref name="KJE">{{translit|ja|[[Kōjien]]}}</ref><ref name="DJR"/>
|-
|{{translit|ja|kōshin}}
|{{nihongo|''Kinoesaru''|甲申|extra="[[Heavenly Stems|Greater-Wood]]-[[Earthly Branches|Monkey]] year", kun}}

{{nihongo|''Kinoetatsu''|甲辰|extra="Greater-Wood-Dragon year", kun}}

{{nihongo|''Kanoesaru''|庚申|extra="Greater-Fire-Monkey year", kun}}

{{nihongo|''Kanoetatsu''|庚辰|extra="Greater-Fire-Dragon year", kun}}
|-
|{{translit|ja|Shin}}
|{{nihongo|''Hatashin''|秦|extra="[[Qin (state)|Qin]]", irregular, from the alternative reading {{translit|ja|Hata}} used as a family name}}<ref name="KJE"/><ref name="DJR"/>

{{nihongo|''Susumushin''|晋|extra="[[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin]]", irregular, from the alternative reading {{translit|ja|Susumu}} used as a personal name}}<ref name="KJE"/><ref name="DJR"/>
|-
|{{translit|ja|shiritsu}}
|{{nihongo|''ichiritsu''|市立|extra="municipal", yutō}}<ref name="KJE"/><ref name="DJR"/>

{{nihongo|''watakushiritsu''|私立|extra="private", yutō}}<ref name="KJE"/><ref name="DJR"/>
|}

There are also cases where the words are technically heterophones, but they have similar meanings and pronunciations, therefore liable to mishearing and misunderstanding.
{| class="wikitable"
!scope="col"| Word with an alternative reading
!scope="col"| Word that may be confused with
|-
|{{nihongo|''gishu''|技手|extra="assistant engineer", on}}, alternatively {{translit|ja|gite}}, jūbako<ref name="KJE"/><ref name="DJR"/>
|{{nihongo|''gishi''|技師|extra="engineer", on}}
|-
|{{nihongo|''shuchō''|首長|extra="chief", on}}, alternatively {{translit|ja|kubichō}}, yutō<ref>{{translit|ja|[[Daijirin]] 3}}</ref><ref>''Digital [[Daijisen]]''</ref>
|{{nihongo|''shichō''|市長|extra="mayor", on}}
|}

===Place names===
Several famous place names, including [[names of Japan|those of Japan]] itself ({{Nihongo2|日本}} {{translit|ja|Nihon}} or sometimes {{translit|ja|Nippon}}), those of some cities such as [[Tokyo]] ({{Nihongo2|東京}} {{translit|ja|Tōkyō}}) and [[Kyoto]] ({{Nihongo2|京都}} {{translit|ja|Kyōto}}), and those of the main islands [[Honshu]] ({{Nihongo2|本州}} {{translit|ja|Honshū}}), [[Kyushu]] ({{Nihongo2|九州}} {{translit|ja|Kyūshū}}), [[Shikoku]] ({{Nihongo2|四国}} {{translit|ja|Shikoku}}), and [[Hokkaido]] ({{Nihongo2|北海道}} {{translit|ja|Hokkaidō}}) are read with {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}; however, the majority of Japanese place names are read with {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}: {{Nihongo2|大阪}} {{translit|ja|Ōsaka}}, {{Nihongo2|青森}} {{translit|ja|[[Aomori Prefecture|Aomori]]}}, {{Nihongo2|箱根}} {{translit|ja|[[Hakone]]}}. Names often use characters and readings that are not in common use outside of names. When characters are used as abbreviations of place names, their reading may not match that in the original. The [[Osaka]] ({{Nihongo2|大阪}}) and [[Kobe]] ({{Nihongo2|神戸}}) baseball team, the [[Hanshin Tigers|Hanshin]] ({{Nihongo2|阪神}}) Tigers, take their name from the {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} of the second kanji of {{translit|ja|Ōsaka}} and the first of {{translit|ja|Kōbe}}. The name of the [[Keisei Narita Airport Line|Keisei]] ({{Nihongo2|京成}}) railway line—linking Tokyo ({{Nihongo2|東京}}) and [[Narita, Chiba|Narita]] ({{Nihongo2|成田}})—is formed similarly, although the reading of {{Nihongo2|京}} from {{Nihongo2|東京}} is {{translit|ja|kei}}, despite {{translit|ja|kyō}} already being an {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} in the word {{translit|ja|Tōkyō}}.

[[Japanese family name]]s are also usually read with {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}: {{Nihongo2|山田}} {{translit|ja|Yamada}}, {{Nihongo2|田中}} {{translit|ja|Tanaka}}, {{Nihongo2|鈴木}} {{translit|ja|Suzuki}}. Japanese [[given name]]s often have very irregular readings. Although they are not typically considered {{translit|ja|jūbako}} or {{translit|ja|yutō}}, they often contain mixtures of {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}, {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} and {{translit|ja|nanori}}, such as {{Nihongo2|大助}} {{translit|ja|Daisuke}} [{{translit|ja|on-kun}}], {{Nihongo2|夏美}} {{translit|ja|Natsumi}} [{{translit|ja|kun-on}}]. Being chosen at the discretion of the parents, the readings of given names do not follow any set rules, and it is impossible to know with certainty how to read a person's name without independent verification. Parents can be quite creative, and rumors abound of children called {{Nihongo2|地球}} {{translit|ja|Āsu}} ("Earth") and {{Nihongo2|天使}} {{translit|ja|Enjeru}} ("Angel"); neither are common names, and have normal readings {{translit|ja|chikyū}} and {{translit|ja|tenshi}} respectively. Some common Japanese names can be written in multiple ways, e.g., Akira can be written as {{Nihongo2|亮}}, {{Nihongo2|彰}}, {{Nihongo2|明}}, {{Nihongo2|顕}}, {{Nihongo2|章}}, {{Nihongo2|聴}}, {{Nihongo2|光}}, {{Nihongo2|晶}}, {{Nihongo2|晄}}, {{Nihongo2|彬}}, {{Nihongo2|昶}}, {{Nihongo2|了}}, {{Nihongo2|秋良}}, {{Nihongo2|明楽}}, {{Nihongo2|日日日}}, {{Nihongo2|亜紀良}}, {{Nihongo2|安喜良}} and many other characters and kanji combinations not listed,<ref>{{Cite web|title = ateji Archives|url = http://www.tofugu.com/tag/ateji/|website = Tofugu|access-date = 2016-02-18|language = en-US|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151225050755/http://www.tofugu.com/tag/ateji|archive-date = December 25, 2015|url-status = dead}}</ref> Satoshi can be written as {{Nihongo2|聡}}, {{Nihongo2|哲}}, {{Nihongo2|哲史}}, {{Nihongo2|悟}}, {{Nihongo2|佐登史}}, {{Nihongo2|暁}}, {{Nihongo2|訓}}, {{Nihongo2|哲士}}, {{Nihongo2|哲司}}, {{Nihongo2|敏}}, {{Nihongo2|諭}}, {{Nihongo2|智}}, {{Nihongo2|佐登司}}, {{Nihongo2|總}}, {{Nihongo2|里史}}, {{Nihongo2|三十四}}, {{Nihongo2|了}}, {{Nihongo2|智詞}}, etc.,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jisho.org/search/Satoshi|title=Satoshi|website=jisho.org|access-date=2016-03-05|archive-date=April 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419090542/http://jisho.org/search/satoshi|url-status=live}}</ref> and Haruka can be written as {{Nihongo2|遥}}, {{Nihongo2|春香}}, {{Nihongo2|晴香}}, {{Nihongo2|遥香}}, {{Nihongo2|春果}}, {{Nihongo2|晴夏}}, {{Nihongo2|春賀}}, {{Nihongo2|春佳}}, and several other possibilities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jisho.org/search/Haruka|title=Haruka|website=jisho.org|access-date=2016-03-05|archive-date=March 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302030038/http://jisho.org/search/haruka|url-status=live}}</ref> Common patterns do exist, however, allowing experienced readers to make a good guess for most names. To alleviate any confusion on how to pronounce the names of other Japanese people, most official Japanese documents require Japanese to write their names in both {{translit|ja|kana}} and kanji.<ref name="How do Japanese names work"/>

Chinese place names and [[Chinese personal name]]s appearing in Japanese texts, if spelled in kanji, are almost invariably read with {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}. Especially for older and well-known names, the resulting Japanese pronunciation may differ widely from that used by modern Chinese speakers. For example, [[Mao Zedong]]'s name is pronounced as {{nihongo||毛沢東|Mō Takutō}} in Japanese, and the name of the legendary Monkey King, [[Sun Wukong]], is pronounced {{translit|ja|[[Son Goku (Journey to the West)|Son Gokū]]}} ({{Nihongo2|孫悟空}}) in Japanese.

Today, Chinese names that are not well known in Japan are often spelled in {{translit|ja|[[katakana]]}} instead, in a form much more closely approximating the native Chinese pronunciation. Alternatively, they may be written in kanji with {{translit|ja|katakana}} {{translit|ja|furigana}}. Many such cities have names that come from non-[[Chinese language]]s like [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] or [[Manchu language|Manchu]]. Examples of such not-well-known Chinese names include:
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |English name
! colspan="3" |Japanese name
|-
!{{translit|ja|Rōmaji}}
!{{translit|ja|Katakana}}
!Kanji
|-
|Harbin
|{{translit|ja|Harubin}}
|{{lang|ja|ハルビン}}
|{{Nihongo2|哈爾浜}}
|-
|Ürümqi
|{{translit|ja|Urumuchi}}
|{{lang|ja|ウルムチ}}
|{{Nihongo2|烏魯木斉}}
|-
|Qiqihar
|{{translit|ja|Chichiharu}}
|{{lang|ja|チチハル}}
|{{Nihongo2|斉斉哈爾}}
|-
|Lhasa
|{{translit|ja|Rasa}}
|{{lang|ja|ラサ}}
|{{Nihongo2|拉薩}}
|}
Internationally renowned Chinese-named cities tend to imitate the older English pronunciations of their names, regardless of the kanji's {{translit|ja|on'yomi}} or the Mandarin or Cantonese pronunciation, and can be written in either {{translit|ja|katakana}} or kanji. Examples include:
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |English name
! rowspan="2" |Mandarin name ([[pinyin]])
! rowspan="2" |Shanghainese name ([[Romanization of Wu Chinese|Wugniu]])
! rowspan="2" |Hokkien name ([[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|Tâi-lô]])
! rowspan="2" |Cantonese name ([[Yale romanization of Cantonese|Yale]])
! colspan="3" |Japanese name
|-
!Kanji
!{{translit|ja|Katakana}}
!{{translit|ja|Rōmaji}}
|-
|Hong Kong
|{{translit|cmn|Xiānggǎng}}
|{{translit|wuu|shian-kaon}}
|{{translit|nan|Hiong-káng}} / {{translit|nan|Hiang-káng}}
|{{translit|yue|Hēung Góng}}
|{{Nihongo2|香港}}
|{{lang|ja|ホンコン}}
|{{translit|ja|Honkon}}
|-
|Macao/Macau
|{{translit|cmn|Àomén}}
|{{translit|wuu|au-men}}
|{{translit|nan|Ò-mn̂g}} / {{translit|nan|Ò-muî}} / {{translit|nan|Ò-bûn}}
|{{translit|yue|Ou Mún}} / {{translit|yue|Ou Mùhn}}
|{{Nihongo2|澳門}}
|{{lang|ja|マカオ}}
|{{translit|ja|Makao}}
|-
|Shanghai
|{{translit|cmn|Shànghǎi}}
|{{translit|wuu|zaon-he}}
|{{translit|nan|Siōng-hái}} / {{translit|nan|Siǒng-hái}} / {{translit|nan|Siāng-hái}}
|{{translit|yue|Seuhng Hói}}
|{{Nihongo2|上海}} 
|{{lang|ja|シャンハイ}}
|{{translit|ja|Shanhai}}
|-
|Beijing/Peking
|{{translit|cmn|Běijīng}}
|{{translit|wuu|poq-cin}}
|{{translit|nan|Pak-kiann}}
|{{translit|yue|Bāk Gīng}}
|{{Nihongo2|北京}}
|{{lang|ja|ペキン}}
|{{translit|ja|Pekin}}
|-
|Nanjing/Nanking
|{{translit|cmn|Nánjīng}}
|{{translit|wuu|noe-cin}}
|{{translit|nan|Lâm-kiann}}
|{{translit|yue|Nàahm Gīng}}
|{{Nihongo2|南京}}
|{{lang|ja|ナンキン}}
|{{translit|ja|Nankin}}
|-
|Taipei
|{{translit|cmn|Táiběi}}
|{{translit|wuu|de-poq}}
|{{translit|nan|Tâi-pak}}
|{{translit|yue|Tòih Bāk}}
|{{Nihongo2|台北}}
|{{lang|ja|タイペイ}} / {{lang|ja|タイホク}}
|{{translit|ja|Taipei}} / {{translit|ja|Taihoku}}
|-
|Kaohsiung
|{{translit|cmn|Gāoxióng}} / {{translit|cmn|Dǎgǒu}}
|{{translit|wuu|kau-yon}} / {{translit|wuu|tan-keu}}
|{{translit|nan|Ko-hiông}} / {{translit|nan|Tá-káu}} / {{translit|nan|Tánn-káu}}
|{{translit|yue|Gōu Hùhng}} / {{translit|yue|Dá Gáu}}
|{{Nihongo2|高雄}} / {{Nihongo2|打狗}}
|{{lang|ja|カオシュン}} / {{lang|ja|タカオ}}
|{{translit|ja|Kaoshun}} / {{translit|ja|Takao}}
|}

Notes: 
*Guangzhou, the city, is pronounced {{translit|ja|Kōshū}}, while Guangdong, its province, is pronounced {{translit|ja|Kanton}}, not {{translit|ja|*Kōtō}} (in this case, opting for a {{translit|ja|tō-on}} reading rather than the usual {{translit|ja|kan-on}} reading).
* Hangzhou (expected {{translit|ja|Kōshū}}) is often pronounced {{translit|ja|Kuishū}} to disambiguate with Guangzhou.
*Kaohsiung was originally pronounced {{translit|ja|Takao}} (or similar) in [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Hokkien]] and Japanese. It received this written [[Kaohsiung#Etymology and names|name]] (kanji/Chinese) from Japanese, and later its spoken Mandarin name from the corresponding characters. The English name "Kaohsiung" derived from its Mandarin pronunciation. Today it is pronounced either {{lang|ja|カオシュン}} or {{lang|ja|タカオ}} in Japanese.
*Taipei is generally pronounced {{lang|ja|たいほく}} in Japanese.

In some cases the same kanji can appear in a given word with different readings. Normally this occurs when a character is duplicated and the reading of the second character has voicing ({{translit|ja|[[rendaku]]}}), as in {{lang|ja|人人}} {{translit|ja|hito-bito}} "people" (more often written with the [[iteration mark]] as {{Nihongo2|人々}}), but in rare cases the readings can be unrelated, as in {{nihongo||跳び跳ねる|tobi-haneru|"hop around", more often written {{lang|ja|飛び跳ねる}}}}.

===Pronunciation assistance===
Because of the ambiguities involved, kanji sometimes have their pronunciation for the given context spelled out in [[ruby character]]s known as {{translit|ja|[[furigana]]}}, (small {{translit|ja|[[kana]]}} written above or to the right of the character, e.g. {{ruby-ja|振仮名|ふりがな}}) or {{translit|ja|kumimoji}} (small {{translit|ja|kana}} written in-line after the character). This is especially true in texts for children or foreign learners. It is also used in [[newspaper]]s and {{translit|ja|[[manga]]}} for rare or unusual readings, or for situations like the first time a character's name is given, and for characters not included in the officially recognized set of [[jōyō kanji|essential kanji]]. Works of fiction sometimes use {{translit|ja|furigana}} to create new "words" by giving normal kanji non-standard readings, or to attach a foreign word rendered in {{translit|ja|katakana}} as the reading for a kanji or kanji compound of the same or similar meaning.

===Spelling words===
Conversely, specifying a given kanji, or spelling out a kanji word—whether the pronunciation is known or not—can be complicated, due to the fact that there is not a commonly used standard way to refer to individual kanji (one does not refer to "kanji #237"), and that a given reading does not map to a single kanji—indeed there are many homophonous ''words'', not simply individual characters, particularly for {{translit|ja|kango}} (with {{translit|ja|on'yomi}}). It is easiest to write the word out—either on paper or tracing it in the air—or look it up (given the pronunciation) in a dictionary, particularly an electronic dictionary; when this is not possible, such as when speaking over the phone or writing implements are not available (and tracing in air is too complicated), various techniques can be used. These include giving {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}} for characters—these are often unique—using a well-known word with the same character (and preferably the same pronunciation and meaning), and describing the character via its components. For example, one may explain how to spell the word {{Nihongo||香辛料|kōshinryō|spice}} via the words {{Nihongo||香り|kao-ri|fragrance}}, {{Nihongo||辛い|kara-i|spicy}}, and {{Nihongo||飲料|in-ryō|beverage}}—the first two use the {{translit|ja|kun'yomi}}, the third is a well-known compound—saying "{{translit|ja|kaori}}, {{translit|ja|karai}}, {{translit|ja|ryō}} as in {{translit|ja|inryō}}."

===Dictionaries===
In dictionaries, both words and individual characters have readings glossed, via various conventions. Native words and Sino-Japanese vocabulary are glossed in {{translit|ja|hiragana}} (for both {{translit|ja|kun}} and {{translit|ja|on}} readings), while borrowings ({{translit|ja|gairaigo}})—including modern borrowings from Chinese—are glossed in {{translit|ja|katakana}}; this is the standard writing convention also used in {{translit|ja|furigana}}. By contrast, readings for individual characters are conventionally written in {{translit|ja|katakana}} for ''on'' readings, and {{translit|ja|hiragana}} for ''kun'' readings. Kun readings may further have a separator to indicate which characters are {{translit|ja|okurigana}}, and which are considered readings of the character itself. For example, in the entry for {{Nihongo2|食}}, the reading corresponding to the basic verb {{Nihongo|''eat''|食べる|taberu}} may be written as {{lang|ja-Kana|た.べる}} (''ta.beru''), to indicate that ''ta'' is the reading of the character itself. Further, [[kanji dictionary|kanji dictionaries]] often list compounds including irregular readings of a kanji.