Editing John Henry Newman (section)

==Conversion to Catholicism==
An interval of two years then elapsed before Newman was received into the Catholic Church on 9 October 1845 by [[Dominic Barberi]], an Italian [[Passionist]], at the college in [[Littlemore]].{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}} The personal consequences for Newman of his conversion were great: he suffered broken relationships with family and friends, and attitudes toward him within his Oxford circle became polarised.{{sfn|Gilley|2003|p=243–45}} The effect on the wider Tractarian movement is still debated since Newman's leading role is regarded by some scholars as overstated, as is Oxford's domination of the movement as a whole. Tractarian writings had a wide and continuing circulation after 1845, well beyond the range of personal contacts with the main Oxford figures, and Tractarian clergy continued to be recruited into the Church of England in numbers.<ref>Herring, pp. 65–74.</ref>

===Oratorian===
In February 1846, Newman left Oxford for [[St. Mary's College, Oscott]], where [[Nicholas Wiseman]], then vicar-apostolic of the Midland district, resided; and in October he went to Rome, where he was ordained priest by Cardinal [[Giacomo Filippo Fransoni]] and awarded the degree of [[Doctor of Divinity]] by [[Pope Pius IX]]. At the close of 1847, Newman returned to England as an [[Oratory of Saint Philip Neri|Oratorian]] and resided first at Maryvale (near [[Old Oscott]], now the site of [[Maryvale Institute]], a college of Theology, Philosophy and Religious Education); then at [[Cotton College|St Wilfrid's College]], [[Cheadle, Staffordshire|Cheadle]]; and then at [[St Anne's Church, Birmingham|St Anne's, Alcester Street]], Birmingham. Finally, he settled at [[Edgbaston]], where spacious premises were built for the community, and where (except for four years in Ireland) he lived a secluded life for nearly forty years.{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}}

[[File:Statue Cardinal Newman, Brompton Oratory.jpg|thumb|Statue outside the [[Church of the Immaculate Heart of Mary]], popularly known as Brompton Oratory, in London]]
Before the house at Edgbaston was occupied, Newman established the [[London Oratory]], with Father [[Frederick William Faber]] as its superior.{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}}

===''Lectures on the Present Position of Catholics in England''===

[[Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom|Anti-Catholicism]] had been central to British culture since the 16th-century English Reformation. According to D. G. Paz, anti-Catholicism was "an integral part of what it meant to be a Victorian".<ref>Paz D.G., ''Popular Anti-Catholicism in Mid-Victorian England'' (Stanford, 1992), p. 299.</ref> Popular anti-Catholic feeling ran high at this time, partly in consequence of the papal bull ''[[Universalis Ecclesiae]]'' by which Pope Pius&nbsp;IX re-established the Catholic diocesan hierarchy in England on 29 September 1850. New episcopal sees were created and Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman was to be the first Archbishop of Westminster.<ref>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Wiseman, Nicholas Patrick Stephen |page=245 |first=William Charles Mark |last=Kent}}</ref> Wiseman announced the restoration of the hierarchy in England on 7 October in a pastoral letter dated "from out of the Flaminian Gate".<ref>{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Wiseman, Nicholas Patrick Stephen|volume=28|pages=752–753 |first=Arthur Wollaston |last=Hutton |author-link=Arthur Wollaston Hutton |ref=HuttonWiseman}}</ref>

Led by ''[[The Times]]'' and ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'', the British press saw this as being an attempt by the papacy to reclaim jurisdiction over England. This was dubbed the "Papal Aggression". The prime minister, [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|John Russell]], wrote a public letter to the Bishop of Durham and denounced this "attempt to impose a foreign yoke upon our minds and consciences".<ref>Norman, E. R., ''Anti-Catholicism in Victorian England'' (London, 1968)</ref> Russell's stirring up of anti-Catholicism led to a national outcry. This "No Popery" uproar led to violence with Catholic priests being pelted in the streets and Catholic churches being attacked.<ref>[http://www.victorianweb.org/religion/Hierarchy_Reestablished.html Anthony S. Wohl, ''The Re-establishment of the Catholic Hierarchy in England, 1850'']</ref>

Newman was keen for lay people to be at the forefront of any public apologetics, writing that Catholics should "make the excuse of this persecution for getting up a great organization, going round the towns giving lectures, or making speeches".<ref name="diary">Newman, John Henry ''The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman'', Vol. XIV (London, 1963), p. 214.</ref> He supported John Capes in the committee he was organising for public lectures in February 1851. Due to ill health, Capes had to stop them halfway through.

Newman took the initiative and booked the Birmingham Corn Exchange for a series of public lectures. He decided to make their tone popular and provide cheap off-prints to those who attended. These lectures were his ''Lectures on the Present Position of Catholics in England'' and they were delivered weekly, beginning on 30 June and published on 1 September 1851.{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}}<ref name = DNB/>

In total, there were nine lectures:
# Protestant view of the Catholic Church
# Tradition the sustaining power of the Protestant view
# Fable the basis of the Protestant view
# True testimony insufficient for the Protestant view
# Logical inconsistency of the Protestant view
# Prejudice the life of the Protestant view
# Assumed principles of the intellectual ground of the Protestant view
# Ignorance concerning Catholics the protection of the Protestant view
# Duties of Catholics towards the Protestant view
which form the nine chapters of the published book. Following the first edition, a number of paragraphs were removed following the [[#Achilli trial|Achilli trial]] as "they were decided by a jury to constitute a libel, June 24, 1852."<ref>Newman, John Henry, ''Lectures on the Present Position of Catholics in England'', The Works of Cardinal John Henry Newman Birmingham Oratory Millennium Edition Volume 1 (2000), p. 208</ref>

Andrew Nash describes the ''Lectures'' as "an analysis of this [anti-Catholic] ideology, satirising it, demonstrating the false traditions on which it was based and advising Catholics how they should respond to it. They were the first of their kind in English literature."{{sfn|Nash|2000|p=viii}}

John Wolffe assesses the ''Lectures'' as: <blockquote>an interesting treatment of the problem of anti-Catholicism from an observer whose partisan commitment did not cause him to slide into mere polemic and who had the advantage of viewing the religious battlefield from both sides of the tortured no man's land of Littlemore.<ref>Griffin, John R., ''A Historical Commentary on the Major Catholic Works of Cardinal Newman'', (New York, 1993), p. 66.</ref></blockquote>

The response to the ''Lectures'' was split between Catholics and Protestants. Generally, Catholics greeted them with enthusiasm. A review in ''[[The Rambler (Catholic periodical)|The Rambler]]'', a Catholic periodical, saw them as "furnishing a key to the whole mystery of anti-Catholic hostility and as shewing the special point of attack upon which our controversial energies should be concentrated."<ref>''The Rambler'', Vol. VIII, November 1851, Part XLVII, p. 387.</ref> However, some Catholic theologians, principally [[John Gillow]], president of [[Ushaw College]], perceived Newman's language as ascribing too much to the role of the laity. Gillow accused Newman of giving the impression that the church's [[infallibility]] resides in a partnership between the hierarchy and the faithful, rather than falling exclusively in the teaching office of the church, a concept described by [[Pope Pius IX]] as the "ordinary magisterium" of the church.<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1UVvDwAAQBAJ&q=%22newman%22+%22Gillow%22&pg=PA339 | title = The Oxford Handbook of John Henry Newman | isbn = 9780198718284 | last1 = Aquino | first1 = Frederick D. | last2 = King | first2 = Benjamin J. | date = 25 October 2018 | publisher = Oxford University Press | access-date = 14 November 2020 | archive-date = 15 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230115161206/https://books.google.com/books?id=1UVvDwAAQBAJ&q=%22newman%22+%22Gillow%22&pg=PA339 | url-status = live }}</ref> The Protestant response was less positive. Archdeacon Julius Hare said that Newman "is determined to say whatever he chooses, in spite of facts and reason".<ref>Hare, J.C., ''The Contest with Rome'', (London, 1852), p. 296</ref>

[[Wilfrid Ward]], Newman's first biographer, describes the ''Lectures'' as follows: <blockquote>We have the very curious spectacle of a grave religious apologist giving rein for the first time at the age of fifty to a sense of rollicking fun and gifts of humorous writing, which if expended on other subjects would naturally have adorned the pages of Thackeray's ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]''.<ref>Ward, Wilfrid, ''Last Lectures'', (London, 1918), p. 113.</ref></blockquote>

Ian Ker has raised the profile of Newman's satire.<ref>Ker, I., "Newman the Satirist", in Ker, I. & Hill, A.G. (ed.), ''Newman after a Hundred Years'', (Oxford, 1990), p. 20.</ref> Ker notes that Newman's imagery has a "savage, Swiftian flavour" and can be "grotesque in the Dickens manner".{{sfn|Ker|2009|p=366}}

Newman himself described the ''Lectures'' as his "best-written book".<ref>Newman, John Henry, ''Letters and Diaries, Vol. XXVI'', p. 115.</ref>

===Achilli trial===
[[File:Caricature Newman.jpg|thumb|Caricature of Newman by "[[Leslie Ward|Spy]]", published in ''[[Vanity Fair (UK)|Vanity Fair]]'' in 1877]]
One of the features of English anti-Catholicism was the holding of public meetings at which ex-Catholics, including former priests, denounced their prior beliefs and gave detailed accounts of the alleged "horrors" of Catholic life. [[Giacinto Achilli]] (1803–1860), an ex-[[Dominican friar]], was one such speaker.<ref name="ODNB Achilli">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/55519 Gilley, S., "Achilli, (Giovanni) Giacinto (b. c.1803)]", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', OUP, (2004) {{ODNBsub}}</ref>

In 1841, the Roman Inquisition had suspended Achilli's priestly faculties for sexual misconduct and sentenced Achilli to three years of penance in a Dominican house.<ref name="ODNB Achilli"/>{{sfn|Ker|2009|p=372}} Achilli left the house in 1842, becoming Protestant and asking for political asylum in [[Corfu]]. In 1850, he was brought to England by the Evangelical Alliance, which portrayed him as a victim, to speak against the Catholic Church.<ref name="ODNB Achilli"/> In July 1850, Wiseman wrote a detailed exposé of him in ''[[The Dublin Review]]'' which listed all of his offences. Newman therefore assumed, after seeking legal advice, that he would be able to repeat the facts in his fifth lecture in his ''Lectures on the Present Position of Catholics in England''.<ref>{{cite book | title=Life of John Henry Cardinal Newman | year=1912 | edition=2 vol | last=Ward|first= W. | chapter=The Achilli Trial | chapter-url=http://www.newmanreader.org/biography/ward/volume1/chapter10.html | publisher=Longmans, Green and Co | location=London |page=278}}</ref>

The section of the lecture that was decided by jury to constitute a libel was:
<blockquote>I have been a Catholic and an infidel; I have been a Roman priest and a hypocrite; I have been a profligate under a cowl. I am that Father Achilli, who as early as 1826, was deprived of my faculty to lecture, for an offence which my superiors did their best to conceal; and who in 1827 had already earned the reputation of a scandalous friar. I am that Achilli, who in the diocese of Viterbo in February 1831, robbed of her honour a young woman of eighteen; who in September 1833, was found guilty of a second such crime, in the case of a person of twenty-eight; and who perpetrated a third in July 1834, in the case of another aged twenty-four.<ref name=AchillivsNewman>{{cite web | url = https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-101160171-bk#page/4/mode/2up/search/1833 | publisher = 'Dewitt & Davenport publishers, NY' & 'U.S. National Library for Medicine, Bethseda, MD' | title = Achilli vs. Newman: A full report of this most extraordinary trial for sedition and adultery charged against Dr. Achilli, the apostate Catholic priest, by the celebrated Dr. Newman .... | date = 21 June 1852 | pages = 3–31, 4 | access-date = 13 October 2019 | archive-date = 20 January 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200120175911/https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-101160171-bk#page/4/mode/2up/search/1833 | url-status = live }}</ref>   I am he, who afterwards was found guilty of sins, similar or worse, in other towns of the neighbourhood. I am that son of St. Dominic who is known to have repeated the offence at Capua, in 1834 or 1835; and at Naples again, in 1840, in the case of a child of fi[f]teen. I am he who chose the sacristy of the church for one of these crimes, and Good Friday for another. Look on me, ye mothers of England, a confessor against Popery, for ye 'ne'er may look upon my like again.' I am that veritable priest, who, after all this, began to speak against, not only the Catholic faith, but the moral law, and perverted others by my teaching. I am the Cavaliere Achilli, who then went to Corfu, made the wife of a tailor faithless to her husband, and lived publicly and travelled about with the wife of a chorus-singer. I am that Professor of the Protestant College at Malta, who with two others was dismissed from my post for offences which the authorities cannot get themselves to describe. And now attend to me, such as I am, and you shall see what you shall see about the barbarity and profligacy of the Inquisitors of Rome.</blockquote>

<blockquote>You speak truly, O Achilli, and we cannot answer you a word. You are a Priest; you have been a Friar; you are, it is undeniable, the scandal of Catholicism, and the palmary argument of Protestants, by your extraordinary depravity. You have been, it is true, a profligate, an unbeliever, and a hypocrite. Not many years passed of your conventual life, and you were never in the choir, always in private houses, so that the laity observed you. You were deprived of your professorship, we own it; you were prohibited from preaching and hearing confessions; you were obliged to give hush-money to the father of one of your victims, as we learned from an official document of the Neapolitan Police to be 'known for habitual incontinency;' your name came before the civil tribunal at Corfu for your crime of adultery. You have put the crown on your offences, by as long as you could, denying them all; you have professed to seek after truth, when you were ravening after sin.<ref>Newman, John Henry, ''Lectures on the Present Position of Catholics in England'', The Works of Cardinal John Henry Newman Birmingham Oratory Millennium Edition Volume 1 (2000), pp. 427–28.</ref></blockquote>

The libel charge was officially laid against Newman in November. Under [[English law]], Newman needed to prove every single charge he had made against Achilli. Newman requested the documents that Wiseman had used for his article in the ''Dublin Review'' but he had mislaid them. He eventually found them but it was too late to prevent the trial.

Newman and his defence committee needed to locate the victims and return them to England. A number of the victims were found and [[Maria Giberne]], a friend of Newman, went to Italy to return with them to England. Achilli, on hearing that witnesses were being brought, arranged for the trial to be delayed. This put Newman under great strain as he had been invited to be the founding rector of the proposed Catholic University in Dublin and was composing and delivering the lectures that would become ''The Idea of a University''.

On 21 June 1852, the libel trial started and lasted three days.{{sfn|Nash|2000|p=xxiv}} Despite the evidence of the victims and witnesses, Achilli denied that any of it had happened; the jury believed him and found Newman guilty of libel.{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}} ''The Times'' said in response that "a great blow has been given to the administration of justice in this country".<ref>Quoted in Newman, John Henry ''The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman'', Vol. XV, (London, 1963) p. 108, n. 1.</ref>

A second trial was not granted and sentencing was postponed. When sentencing occurred, Newman did not get the prison sentence expected but got a fine of £100 and a long lecture from Judge [[John Taylor Coleridge]] about his moral deterioration since he had become a Catholic. Coleridge later wrote to Keble: "It is a very painful matter for us who must hail this libel as false, believing it is in great part true—or at least that it may be."<ref>Ms letter to Keble (Nov. 8, 1852), Taylor Collection, Bodleian, quoted in Griffin, John R., ''A Historical Commentary on the Major Catholic Works of Cardinal Newman'', (New York, 1993), p. 66.</ref>

The fine was paid on the spot and while his expenses as defendant amounted to about £14,000, they were paid out of a fund organised by this defence committee to which Catholics at home and abroad had contributed; there was £2,000 left over which was spent on the purchase of a small property in [[Rednal]], on the [[Lickey Hills]], with a chapel and cemetery, where Newman was eventually buried.{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}}

Newman removed the libellous section of the fifth lecture and replaced it with the inscription:
<blockquote>''De illis quae sequebantur'' / ''posterorum judicium sit'' – About those things which had followed / let posterity be the judge.{{sfn|Nash|2000|p=xxv}}</blockquote>

===Educator===
In 1854, at the request of the Irish Catholic bishops, Newman went to [[Dublin]] as [[Rector (academia)|rector]] of the newly established [[Catholic University of Ireland]], now [[University College Dublin]]. It was during this time that he founded the [[Literary and Historical Society (University College Dublin)|Literary and Historical Society]]. After four years, he retired. He published a volume of lectures entitled ''The Idea of a University'', which explained his [[philosophy of education]].{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}}

[[File:Bust of John Henry Newman.jpg|thumb|Bust of Newman, by T. Westmacott, 1841]]
Newman believed in a middle way between free thinking and [[moral authority]]—one that would respect the rights of knowledge as well as the rights of revelation.<ref name=CEnc/> His purpose was to build a Catholic university, in a world where the major Catholic universities on the European continent had recently been secularised, and most universities in the English-speaking world were Protestant. For a university to claim legitimacy in the larger world, it would have to support research and publication free from church censorship; however, for a university to be a safe place for the education of Catholic youth, it would have to be a place in which the teachings of the Catholic church were respected and promoted.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book | last = Cornwell | first = John | title = Newman's Unquiet Grave | isbn = 978-1441150844 | chapter = Idea of a University | date = 2010| publisher = A&C Black }}</ref>

<blockquote>The University ... has this object and this mission; it contemplates neither moral impression nor mechanical production; it professes to exercise the mind neither in art nor in duty; its function is intellectual culture; here it may leave its scholars, and it has done its work when it has done as much as this. It educates the intellect to reason well in all matters, to reach out towards truth, and to grasp it.<ref>J. H. Newman, ''The Idea of a University'', London, 1891, pp. 125–26, cited by John Cornwell, ''Newman's Unquiet Grave'', ch. 11.</ref></blockquote>

This philosophy encountered opposition within the Catholic Church, at least in Ireland, as evidenced by the opinion of bishop [[Paul Cullen (bishop)|Paul Cullen]]. In 1854 Cullen wrote a letter to the Vatican's Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (now called the [[Dicastery for Evangelization]]), criticising Newman's liberal exercise of authority within the new university:

<blockquote>The discipline introduced is unsuitable, certainly to this country. The young men are allowed to go out at all hours, to smoke, etc., and there has not been any fixed time for study. All this makes it clear that Father Newman does not give enough attention to details.<ref>Charles Stephen Dessain, et al., eds., ''The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman'', vol. 16, note 551, cited by John Cornwell, ''Newman's Unquiet Grave'', ch. 11.</ref></blockquote>

The university as envisaged by Newman encountered too much opposition to prosper. However, his book did have a wide influence.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Cornwell | first = John | title = Newman's Unquiet Grave | url = https://archive.org/details/newmansunquietgr00john | url-access = limited | isbn = 978-1441150844 | chapter = Idea of a University | page = [https://archive.org/details/newmansunquietgr00john/page/n140 128] | quote = A token of the prophetic, timeless and universal nature of Newman's vision is its adoption by writers and thinkers generations on, and far removed, from the circumstances of nineteenth-century tertiary education in Catholic Ireland. | date = 2010| publisher = A&C Black }}</ref>

In 1858, Newman projected a branch house of the Oratory at Oxford; but this project was opposed by Father (later Cardinal) [[Henry Edward Manning]], another influential convert from Anglicanism, and others. It was thought that the creation of a Catholic body within the heart of Oxford was likely to induce Catholics to send their sons to that university, rather than to newly formed Catholic universities. The scheme was abandoned.{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}} When Catholics did begin to attend Oxford from the 1860s onwards, a Catholic club was formed and, in 1888, it was renamed the [[Oxford University Newman Society]] in recognition of Newman's efforts on behalf of Catholicism in that university city. The [[Oxford Oratory]] was eventually founded over 100 years later in 1993.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.oxfordoratory.org.uk/ | title = The Oxford Oratory | publisher = The Oxford Oratory | access-date = 31 August 2013 | archive-date = 17 September 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130917011435/http://www.oxfordoratory.org.uk/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

In 1859, Newman established, in connection with the Birmingham Oratory, a school for the education of the sons of gentlemen along lines similar to those of English public schools.{{sfn|Hutton|1911|p=518}} [[The Oratory School]] flourished as a boys' boarding school, and was one of a number which were to be dubbed "The Catholic [[Eton College|Eton]]".<ref>{{cite book|title=A Catholic Eton? Newman's Oratory School|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6yhgA-nHAMC|location=[[Leominster]]|publisher=Gracewing Publishing|date=2005|pages=26, 29, 41–43|isbn=9780852446614|last=Shrimpton|first=Paul}}</ref>

Newman's published writings and sermons had a profound influence on one of the greatest of American educators, William Augustus Muhlenberg (1796-1877).  At his model schools on Long Island (1828, 1836), Muhlenberg would sometimes read Newman's sermons to the boys.  Muhlenberg, pioneer of a new kind of education in America, and a staunch Protestant, distanced himself from Newman when the latter converted to the Roman Church in 1845.  But the influence went deep, nonetheless, as can be seen in the literary remains of Muhlenberg's former pupils, especially in those of the missionary school-maker Lloyd Breck (1818-1876) and John Barrett Kerfoot (1816-1881), founder of Saint James School of Maryland.

===Relationships with other converts===
[[File:Newman desk.JPG|thumb|upright|left|Newman's desk in the [[Birmingham Oratory]]]]

Newman had a special concern in the publisher [[Burns & Oates]]; the owner, [[James Burns (publisher)|James Burns]], had published some of the Tractarians, and Burns had himself converted to Catholicism in 1847. Newman published several books with the company, effectively saving it. There is even a story that Newman's novel ''[[Loss and Gain]]'' was written specifically to assist Burns.

In 1863, in a response to [[Thomas William Allies]], while agreeing that [[slavery]] was bad, Newman would not publicly condemn it as "intrinsically evil" on the grounds that it had been tolerated by St Paul—thus asserting that slavery is "a condition of life ordained by God in the same sense that other conditions of life are".<ref>John Noonan, ''A Church That Can and Cannot Change'', 2005.</ref>

Newman and [[Henry Edward Manning]] both became significant figures in the late 19th-century Catholic Church in England: both were Anglican converts and both were elevated to the dignity of cardinal. Despite these similarities, there was a lack of sympathy between the two men who were different in character and experience, and they clashed on a number of issues, in particular the foundation of an Oratory in Oxford. On theological issues, Newman had reservations about the declaration of [[papal infallibility]] (Manning favoured the formal declaration of the doctrine). Newman, while personally convinced, as a matter of theological opinion, of papal infallibility, opposed its definition as dogma, fearing that the definition might be expressed in over-broad terms open to misunderstanding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ts.mu.edu/content/51/51.3/51.3.3.pdf |title=Theological Studies – A journal of academic theology |website=Ts.mu.edu |date=30 November 2016}}</ref>

[[George W. E. Russell]] recorded that:
<blockquote>When Newman died there appeared in a monthly magazine a series of very unflattering sketches by one who had lived under his roof. I ventured to ask Cardinal Manning if he had seen these sketches. He replied that he had and thought them very shocking; the writer must have a very unenviable mind, &c., and then, having thus sacrificed to propriety, after a moment's pause he added: "But if you ask me if they are like poor Newman, I am bound to say—''a photograph''."<ref>G.W.Russell, ''Collections & Recollections'' (Revised edition, Smith, Elder & Co, London, 1899), at p. 46</ref></blockquote>