Editing James K. Polk (section)

== Presidency (1845–1849) ==
{{Main|Presidency of James K. Polk}}

[[File:White House 1846.jpg|thumb|alt=A black and white image of the White House|The [[White House]], 1846]]
[[File:Dolly MAdison.jpg|thumb|right|James and Sarah Polk on the portico of the White House alongside Secretary of State [[James Buchanan]], and former first lady [[Dolley Madison]]. |203x203px]]

With a slender victory in the popular vote, but with a greater victory in the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] (170–105), Polk proceeded to implement his campaign promises. He presided over a country whose population had doubled every twenty years since the [[American Revolution]] and which had reached demographic parity with [[Great Britain]].<ref name=Merry132133>Merry, pp. 132–133</ref> During Polk's tenure, technological advancements persisted, including the continued expansion of railroads and increased use of the telegraph.<ref name=Merry132133/> These improvements in communication encouraged a zest for [[expansionism]].<ref name=Merry131132/> However, sectional divisions became worse during his tenure.

Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration:<ref name=Merry131132>Merry, pp. 131–132</ref>
* Reestablish the [[Independent Treasury|Independent Treasury System]]{{snd}}the Whigs had abolished the one created under Van Buren.
* Reduce [[Tariffs in American history|tariffs]].
* Acquire some or all of the [[Oregon boundary dispute|Oregon Country]].
* Acquire California and its harbors from Mexico.

While his domestic aims represented continuity with past Democratic policies, successful completion of Polk's foreign policy goals would represent the first major [[United States territorial acquisitions|American territorial gains]] since the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] of 1819.<ref name=Merry131132/>

=== Transition, inauguration and appointments ===
{{further|Inauguration of James K. Polk}}Polk formed a geographically balanced Cabinet.<ref name=Merry112113>Merry, pp. 112–113</ref> He consulted Jackson and one or two other close allies, and decided that the large states of New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia should have representation in the six-member Cabinet, as should his home state of Tennessee. At a time when an incoming president might retain some or all of his predecessor's department heads, Polk wanted an entirely fresh Cabinet, but this proved delicate. Tyler's final Secretary of State was Calhoun, leader of a considerable faction of the Democratic Party, but, when approached by emissaries, he did not take offense and was willing to step down.<ref name="bergeron2325" />

Polk did not want his Cabinet to contain presidential hopefuls, though he chose to nominate [[James Buchanan]] of Pennsylvania, whose ambition for the presidency was well-known, as Secretary of State.<ref name=Merry114117>Merry, pp. 114–117</ref> Tennessee's [[Cave Johnson]], a close friend and ally of Polk, was nominated for the position of Postmaster General, with George Bancroft, the historian who had played a crucial role in Polk's nomination, as Navy Secretary.  Polk's choices met with the approval of Andrew Jackson, with whom Polk met for the last time in January 1845, as Jackson died that June.<ref name=Merry117119>Merry, pp. 117–119</ref>

Tyler's last Navy Secretary, [[John Y. Mason]] of Virginia, Polk's friend since college days and a longtime political ally, was not on the original list. As Cabinet choices were affected by factional politics and President Tyler's drive to resolve the Texas issue before leaving office, Polk at the last minute chose Mason as Attorney General.<ref name ="bergeron2325">Bergeron, pp. 23–25</ref> Polk also chose Mississippi Senator Walker as Secretary of the Treasury and New York's [[William Marcy]] as Secretary of War. The members worked well together, and few replacements were necessary. One reshuffle was required in 1846 when Bancroft, who wanted a diplomatic posting, became [[United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom|U.S. minister to Britain]].<ref>Bergeron, pp. 29–30</ref>

In his last days in office, President Tyler sought to complete the annexation of Texas. After the Senate had defeated an earlier treaty that required a two-thirds majority, Tyler urged Congress to pass a joint resolution, relying on its constitutional power to admit states.<ref name=Merry120124>Merry, pp. 120–124</ref> There were disagreements about the terms under which Texas would be admitted and Polk became involved in negotiations to break the impasse. With Polk's help, the annexation resolution narrowly cleared the Senate.<ref name=Merry120124/> Tyler was unsure whether to sign the resolution or leave it for Polk and sent Calhoun to consult with Polk, who declined to give any advice. On his final evening in office, March 3, 1845, Tyler offered annexation to Texas according to the terms of the resolution.<ref>Woodworth, p. 140</ref>

<!-- linked from redirects [[Polk Administration]], [[Presidency of James K. Polk]] -->
[[File:Polk inauguration Oath London News (edit).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Woodcut of Polk taking the oath on the East Portico of the Capitol, with a crowd of people looking on.|The inauguration of James K. Polk, as shown in the ''Illustrated London News'', v. 6, April 19, 1845]]

Even before his inauguration, Polk wrote to Cave Johnson, "I intend to be {{em|myself}} President of the U.S."<ref>Greenberg, p. 69</ref> He would gain a reputation as a hard worker, spending ten to twelve hours at his desk, and rarely leaving Washington. Polk wrote, "No President who performs his duty faithfully and conscientiously can have any leisure. I prefer to supervise the whole operations of the government myself rather than intrust the public business to subordinates, and this makes my duties very great."<ref name = "a" /> When he took office on March 4, 1845, Polk, at 49, became the [[List of presidents of the United States by age|youngest president]] to that point. Polk's inauguration was the first [[United States presidential inauguration|inaugural ceremony]] to be reported by telegraph, and first to be shown in a newspaper illustration (in ''[[The Illustrated London News]]'').<ref>{{cite web|title=President James Knox Polk, 1845 |url=http://inaugural.senate.gov/history/chronology/jkpolk1845.cfm |publisher=Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies |access-date=January 23, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120211409/http://inaugural.senate.gov/history/chronology/jkpolk1845.cfm |archive-date=January 20, 2009 }}</ref>

In his inaugural address, delivered in a steady rain, Polk made clear his support for Texas annexation by referring to the 28 states of the U.S., thus including Texas. He proclaimed his fidelity to Jackson's principles by quoting his famous toast, "Every lover of his country must shudder at the thought of the possibility of its dissolution and will be ready to adopt the patriotic sentiment, 'Our Federal Union—it must be preserved.'"<ref>Borneman, p. 141</ref> He stated his opposition to a national bank, and repeated that the tariff could include incidental protection. Although he did not mention slavery specifically, he alluded to it, decrying those who would tear down an institution protected by the Constitution.<ref>Borneman, pp. 141–142</ref>

Polk devoted the second half of his speech to foreign affairs, and specifically to expansion. He applauded the annexation of Texas, warning that Texas was no affair of any other nation, and certainly none of Mexico's. He spoke of the Oregon Country, and of the many who were migrating, pledging to safeguard America's rights there and to protect the settlers.<ref>Borneman, pp. 142–143</ref>

As well as appointing Cabinet officers to advise him, Polk made his sister's son, [[Joseph Knox Walker|J. Knox Walker]], his [[Secretary to the President of the United States|personal secretary]], an especially important position because, other than his slaves, Polk had no staff at the White House. Walker, who lived at the White House with his growing family (two children were born to him while living there), performed his duties competently through his uncle's presidency. Other Polk relatives visited at the White House, some for extended periods.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 230–232</ref>

[[File:State-dining-room-polk-cabinet.jpg|thumb|Polk and his cabinet in the White House dining room, 1846. Front row, left to right: [[John Y. Mason]], [[William L. Marcy]], James K. Polk, [[Robert J. Walker]]. Back row, left to right: [[Cave Johnson]], [[George Bancroft]]. Secretary of State [[James Buchanan]] is absent. This was the first photograph taken in the White House, and the first of a presidential Cabinet.<ref>Greenberg, p. 70</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=James Polk's cabinet |url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/photos/james-polks-cabinet |website=WHHA (en-US) |access-date=February 4, 2022 |language=en}}</ref>]]

=== Foreign policy ===

==== Partition of Oregon Country ====
{{Main|Oregon boundary dispute}}

Britain and the U.S. each derived claims to the Oregon Country from the voyages of explorers. Russia and Spain had waived their weak claims.<ref>Merry, pp. 163–167</ref> Claims of the indigenous peoples of the region to their traditional lands were not a factor.

[[File:Oregoncountry2.png|thumb|left|alt=A map of the undivided Oregon Country|Map of [[Oregon Country]], which the [[Oregon Treaty]] split between the Americans and British at the 49th parallel]]

Rather than war over the distant and unsettled territory, Washington and London negotiated amicably. Previous U.S. administrations had offered to divide the region along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], which was not acceptable to Britain, as it had commercial interests along the Columbia River.<ref name=merry168169>Merry, pp. 168–169</ref> Britain's preferred partition was unacceptable to Polk, as it would have awarded [[Puget Sound]] and all lands north of the Columbia River to Britain, and Britain was unwilling to accept the 49th parallel extended to the Pacific, as it meant the entire opening to Puget Sound would be in American hands, isolating its settlements along the [[Fraser River]].<ref name=merry168169/>

[[Edward Everett]], Tyler's minister in London, had informally proposed dividing the territory at the 49th parallel with the strategic [[Vancouver Island]] granted to the British, thus allowing an opening to the Pacific. But when the new British minister in Washington, [[Richard Pakenham]] arrived in 1844 prepared to follow up, he found that many Americans desired the entire territory, which extended north to 54 degrees, 40 minutes north latitude.<ref>Leonard, p. 95</ref> Oregon had not been a major issue in the 1844 election, but the heavy influx of settlers, mostly American, to the Oregon Country in 1845, and the rising spirit of expansionism in the U.S. as Texas and Oregon seized the public's eye, made a treaty with Britain more urgent.<ref>Bergeron, pp.  115–116</ref> Many Democrats believed the U.S. should span from coast to coast, a philosophy called [[Manifest Destiny]].<ref name = "a" />

Though both sides sought an acceptable compromise, each also saw the territory as an important geopolitical asset that would play a large part in determining the dominant power in North America.<ref name=merry168169/> In his inaugural address, Polk announced that he viewed the U.S. claim to the land as "clear and unquestionable", provoking threats of war from British leaders should Polk attempt to take control of the entire territory.<ref name=merry170171>Merry, pp. 170–171</ref> Polk had refrained in his address from asserting a claim to the entire territory, although the Democratic Party platform called for such a claim.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 116–118</ref> Despite Polk's hawkish rhetoric, he viewed war over Oregon as unwise, and Polk and Buchanan began negotiations with the British.<ref name=merry173175>Merry, pp. 173–175</ref> Like his predecessors, Polk again proposed a division along the 49th parallel, which Pakenham immediately rejected.<ref>Merry, p. 190</ref> Buchanan was wary of a two-front war with Mexico and Britain, but Polk was willing to risk war with both countries in pursuit of a favorable settlement.<ref name=merry190191>Merry, pp. 190–191</ref> In his annual message to Congress in December 1845, Polk requested approval of giving Britain a one-year notice (as required in the Treaty of 1818) of his intention to terminate the joint occupancy of Oregon.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 122–123</ref> In that message, he quoted from the [[Monroe Doctrine]] to denote America's intention of keeping European powers out, the first significant use of it since its origin in 1823.<ref>Pletcher, p. 307</ref> After much debate, Congress passed the resolution in April 1846, attaching its hope that the dispute would be settled amicably.<ref>Leonard, p. 118</ref>

When the British Foreign Secretary, [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]], learned of the proposal Pakenham rejected, Aberdeen asked the U.S. to reopen negotiations, but Polk was unwilling unless the British made a proposal.<ref name=merry196197>Merry, pp. 196–197</ref> With Britain moving toward free trade with the [[repeal of the Corn Laws]], good trade relations with the U.S. were more important to Aberdeen than a distant territory.<ref>Leonard, p. 108</ref> In February 1846, [[Louis McLane]], the American minister in London, was told that Washington would look favorably on a British proposal to divide the continent at the 49th parallel.<ref>Bergeron, p. 128</ref> In June 1846, Pakenham presented an offer calling for a boundary line at the 49th parallel, with the exception that Britain would retain all of Vancouver Island, and there would be limited navigation rights for British subjects on the Columbia River until the expiration of the charter of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] in 1859.<ref>Pletcher, pp. 407–410</ref> Polk and most of his Cabinet were prepared to accept the proposal.<ref>Pletcher, pp. 411–412</ref> The Senate ratified the [[Oregon Treaty]] in a 41–14 vote.<ref>Bergeron, p. 133</ref> Polk's willingness to risk war with Britain had frightened many, but his tough negotiation tactics may have gained concessions from the British (particularly regarding the Columbia River) that a more conciliatory president might not have won.<ref name=merry266267>Merry, pp. 266–267</ref>

==== Annexation of Texas ====
{{Main|Texas Annexation}}
[[File:Mapa de Mexico 1845.PNG|thumb|Map of Mexico in 1845, with the [[Republic of Texas]], the [[Republic of Yucatán]] and the disputed territory between Mexico and Texas in red. Mexico claimed to own all of Texas.]]

The annexation resolution signed by Tyler gave the president the choice of asking Texas to approve annexation, or reopening negotiations; Tyler immediately sent a messenger with the first option.  Polk allowed the messenger to continue.<ref name=Merry136137>Merry, pp. 136–137</ref> He also sent assurance that the United States would defend Texas, and would fix its southern border at the [[Rio Grande]], as claimed by Texas, rather than at the [[Nueces River]], as claimed by Mexico.<ref name = "a" /><ref>Borneman, p. 145</ref><ref name=Merry148151>Merry, pp. 148–151</ref> Public sentiment in Texas favored annexation. In July 1845, a Texas convention ratified annexation, and thereafter voters approved it.<ref>Merry, p. 158</ref> In December 1845, Texas became the 28th state.<ref name=merry211212>Merry, pp. 211–212</ref> However Mexico had broken diplomatic relations with the United States on passage of the joint resolution in March 1845; now annexation escalated tensions as Mexico had never recognized Texan independence.<ref>Borneman, pp. 190–192</ref>

==== Mexican-American War ====
{{Main|Mexican–American War}}

===== Road to war =====
Following the annexation of Texas in 1845, Polk began preparations for a potential war, sending an army there, led by Brigadier General [[Zachary Taylor]].<ref name=Merry188189>Merry, pp. 188–189</ref> American land and naval forces were both ordered to respond to any Mexican aggression but to avoid provoking a war. Polk thought Mexico would give in under duress.<ref>Greenberg, pp. 76–77</ref>

[[File:Polk proclamation.gif|thumb|left|upright|Polk's presidential proclamation of [[Mexican–American War|war against Mexico]]]]

Polk hoped that a show of force would lead to negotiations.<ref name=Merry188189/> In late 1845, He sent [[John Slidell]] to Mexico to purchase New Mexico and California for $30 million (${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|30000000|1845}}}} in {{Inflation-year|US}} dollars {{inflation-fn|US}}), as well as securing Mexico's agreement to a Rio Grande border.<ref name=merry193194>Merry, pp. 193–194</ref> Mexican opinion was hostile and President [[José Joaquín de Herrera]]  refused to receive Slidell.  Herrera soon was deposed by a military coup led by General [[Mariano Paredes (President of Mexico)|Mariano Paredes]],<ref>Woodworth, pp. 146–148</ref> a hard-liner who pledged to take back Texas.<ref>Greenberg, pp. 78–79</ref> Dispatches from Slidell warned Washington that war was near.<ref>Bergeron, p. 71</ref>

Polk regarded the treatment of Slidell as an insult and an "ample cause of war", and he prepared to ask Congress to declare it.<ref>Haynes, p. 129</ref> Meanwhile, in late March, General Taylor had reached the Rio Grande, and his army camped across the river from [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas]]. In April, after Mexican general [[Pedro de Ampudia]] demanded that Taylor return to the Nueces River, Taylor began a blockade of Matamoros. A skirmish on the northern side of the Rio Grande on April 25 ended in the death or capture of dozens of American soldiers and became known as the [[Thornton Affair]]. Word reached Washington on May 9, and Polk sent a war message to Congress on the ground that Mexico had, "shed American blood on the American soil".<ref>Greenberg, pp. 101–104</ref><ref name="lee2">Lee, pp. 517–518</ref> The House overwhelmingly approved a resolution declaring war and authorizing the president to accept 50,000 volunteers into the military.<ref name=merry244246>Merry, pp. 245–246</ref><ref>Borneman, pp. 205–206</ref> In the Senate, war opponents led by Calhoun questioned Polk's version of events. Nonetheless, the House resolution passed the Senate in a 40–2 vote, with Calhoun abstaining, marking the beginning of the Mexican–American War.<ref name=merry246247>Merry, pp. 246–247</ref>

===== Course of the war =====
[[File:Mexican–American War (without Scott's Campaign)-en.svg|thumb|alt=Map of the southwestern United States, including Texas, and also displaying Mexico, with the movements of the forces in the war marked on it|Overview map of the war {{legend|#FEE8B1|Disputed territory}} {{legend|#EFE0C7|United States territory, 1848}} {{legend|#D4E697|Mexican territory, 1848}}{{legend|#FFFFE0|After treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo}}]]

After the initial skirmishes, Taylor and much of his army marched away from the river to secure the supply line, leaving a makeshift base, [[Fort Texas]]. On the way back to the Rio Grande, Mexican forces under General [[Mariano Arista]] attempted to block Taylor's way as other troops [[Siege of Fort Texas|laid siege to Fort Texas]], forcing the U.S. Army general to the attack if he hoped to relieve the fort. In the [[Battle of Palo Alto]], the first major engagement of the war, Taylor's troops forced Arista's from the field, suffering only four dead to hundreds for the Mexicans. The next day, Taylor led the army to victory in the [[Battle of Resaca de la Palma]], putting the Mexican Army to rout.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 160–166</ref> The early successes boosted support for the war, which despite the lopsided votes in Congress, had deeply divided the nation.<ref name = "L164">Leonard, p. 164</ref> Many Northern Whigs opposed the war, as did others; they felt Polk had used patriotism to manipulate the nation into fighting a war, the goal of which was to give slavery room to expand.<ref>Leonard, p. 162</ref>

Polk distrusted the two senior officers, [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] [[Winfield Scott]] and Taylor, as both were Whigs. Polk would have replaced them with Democrats, but felt Congress would not approve it. He offered Scott the position of top commander in the war, which the general accepted. Polk and Scott already knew and disliked each other: the President made the appointment despite the fact that Scott had sought his party's presidential nomination for the 1840 election.<ref>Borneman, pp. 254–256</ref><ref name= "s134">Seigenthaler, p. 134</ref> Polk came to believe that Scott was too slow in getting himself and his army away from Washington and to the Rio Grande, and was outraged to learn Scott was using his influence in Congress to defeat the administration's plan to expand the number of generals.<ref>Leonard, p. 166</ref> The news of Taylor's victory at Resaca de la Palma arrived then, and Polk decided to have Taylor take command in the field, and Scott to remain in Washington. Polk also ordered Commodore Conner to allow [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] to return to Mexico from his exile in Havana, thinking that he would negotiate a treaty ceding territory to the U.S. for a price. Polk sent representatives to Cuba for talks with Santa Anna.

Polk sent an army expedition led by [[Stephen W. Kearny]] towards Santa Fe, to territory beyond the original claims in Texas.<ref>Merry, pp. 259–262</ref> In 1845, Polk, fearful of French or British intervention, had sent Lieutenant [[Archibald H. Gillespie]] to California with orders to foment a pro-American rebellion that could be used to justify annexation of the territory.<ref name=merry295296>Merry, pp. 295–296</ref> After meeting with Gillespie, Army captain [[John C. Frémont]] led settlers in northern California to overthrow the Mexican garrison in [[Sonoma, California|Sonoma]] in what became known as the [[California Republic|Bear Flag Revolt]].<ref name=merry302304>Merry, pp. 302–304</ref> In August 1846, American forces under Kearny captured Santa Fe, capital of the province of [[Santa Fe de Nuevo México|New Mexico]], without firing a shot.<ref>Greenberg, p. 121</ref> Almost simultaneously, Commodore [[Robert F. Stockton]] landed in [[Los Angeles]] and proclaimed the capture of California.<ref>Greenberg, p. 122</ref> After American forces put down a revolt, the United States held effective control of New Mexico and California.<ref name=merry304306>Merry, pp. 304–306</ref> Nevertheless, the Western theater of the war would prove to be a political headache for Polk, since a dispute between Frémont and Kearny led to a break between Polk and the powerful Missouri senator (and father-in-law of Frémont), [[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Thomas Hart Benton]].<ref name=merry396397>Merry, pp. 423–424</ref>

[[File:War News from Mexico.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A painting, showing people gathered on a porch around one who is reading from a newspaper|''War News from Mexico'', 1848 painting by [[Richard Caton Woodville]]]]

The initial public euphoria over the victories at the start of the war slowly dissipated.<ref>Greenberg, p. 129</ref> In August 1846, Polk asked Congress to appropriate $2 million (~${{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=2000000|start_year=1846}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) as a down payment for the potential purchase of Mexican lands. Polk's request ignited opposition, as he had never before made public his desire to annex parts of Mexico (aside from lands claimed by Texas). It was unclear whether such newly acquired lands would be slave or free, and there was fierce and acrimonious sectional debate. A freshman Democratic Congressman, [[David Wilmot (politician)|David Wilmot]] of Pennsylvania, previously a firm supporter of Polk's administration, offered an amendment to the bill, the [[Wilmot Proviso]], that would ban slavery in any land acquired using the money. The appropriation bill, with the Wilmot Proviso attached, passed the House, but died in the Senate.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 235–237</ref> This discord cost Polk's party, with Democrats losing control of the House in the [[1846 United States House of Representatives elections|1846 elections]]. In early 1847, though, Polk was successful in passing a bill raising further regiments, and he also finally won approval for the appropriation.<ref name=merry343349>Merry, pp. 343–349</ref>

[[File:Santaannain1847.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Antonio López de Santa Anna, 1847]]
To try to bring the war to a quick end, in July 1846, Polk considered supporting a potential coup led by the exiled Mexican former president, General [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]], with the hope that Santa Anna would sell parts of California.<ref name=merry238240>Merry, pp. 238–240</ref> Santa Anna was in exile in Cuba, still a colony of Spain. Polk sent an envoy to have secret talks with Santa Anna. The U.S. Consul in Havana, R.B. Campbell, began seeking a way to engage with Santa Anna. A U.S. citizen of Spanish birth, Col. Alejandro José Atocha, knew Santa Anna and acted initially as an intermediary. Polk noted his contacts with Atocha in his diary, who said that Santa Anna was interested in concluding a treaty with the U.S. gaining territory while Mexico received payment that would include settling its debts. Polk decided that Atocha was untrustworthy and sent his own representative, [[Alexander Slidell Mackenzie]], (a relative of John Slidell) to meet with Santa Anna. Mackenzie told Santa Anna that Polk wished to see him in power and that if they came to an agreement that the U.S. naval blockade would be lifted briefly to allow Santa Anna to return to Mexico. Polk requested $2 million from Congress to be used to negotiate a treaty with Mexico or payment to Mexico before a treaty was signed. The blockade was indeed briefly lifted and Santa Anna returned to Mexico, not to head a government that would negotiate a treaty with the U.S., but rather to organize a military defense of his homeland. Santa Anna gloated over Polk's naïveté;<ref>Fowler, ''Santa Anna of Mexico'', pp. 251–255</ref> Polk had been "snookered" by Santa Anna.<ref>Merry, plate 27 caption.</ref> Instead of coming to a negotiated settlement with the U.S., Santa Anna mounted a defense of Mexico and fought to the bitter end. "His actions would prolong the war for at least a year, and more than any other single person, it was Santa Anna who denied Polk's dream of short war."<ref>Guardino, Peter. ''The Dead March: A History of the Mexican-American War''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 2017, p 88.</ref>
[[File:JamesKnoxPolk.jpg|left|thumb|Oil on canvas portrait by [[George Peter Alexander Healy]]]]
This caused Polk to harden his position on Mexico,<ref>Borneman, pp. 229, 244–246</ref> and he ordered an American landing at [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]], the most important Mexican port on the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. From there, troops were to march through Mexico's heartland to Mexico City, which it was hoped would end the war.<ref name=merry309310>Merry, pp. 309–310</ref> Continuing to advance in northeast Mexico, Taylor defeated a Mexican army led by Ampudia in the September 1846 [[Battle of Monterrey]], but allowed Ampudia's forces to withdraw from the town, much to Polk's consternation.<ref name=merry311313>Merry, pp. 311–313</ref> Polk believed Taylor had not aggressively pursued the enemy and offered command of the Veracruz expedition to Scott.<ref name = "leonard174">Leonard, p. 174</ref>

The lack of trust Polk had in Taylor was returned by the Whig general, who feared the partisan president was trying to destroy him. Accordingly, Taylor disobeyed orders to remain near Monterrey.<ref name= "s134" /> In March 1847, Polk learned that Taylor had continued to march south, capturing the northern Mexican town of [[Saltillo]].<ref>Borneman, pp. 247–248</ref> Continuing beyond Saltillo, Taylor's army fought a larger Mexican force, led by Santa Anna, in the [[Battle of Buena Vista]]. Initial reports gave the victory to Mexico, with great rejoicing, but Santa Anna retreated. Mexican casualties were five times that of the Americans, and the victory made Taylor even more of a military hero in the American public's eyes, though Polk preferred to credit the bravery of the soldiers rather than the Whig general.<ref>Borneman, pp. 249–252</ref>

The U.S. changed the course of the war with its invasion of Mexico's heartland through Veracruz and ultimately the capture of Mexico City, following hard fighting. In March 1847, Scott landed in Veracruz, and quickly [[Siege of Veracruz|won control]] of the city.<ref>Leonard, pp. 174–175</ref> The Mexicans expected that yellow fever and other tropical diseases would weaken the U.S. forces. With the capture of Veracruz, Polk dispatched [[Nicholas Trist]], Buchanan's chief clerk, to accompany Scott's army and negotiate a peace treaty with Mexican leaders.<ref>Woodworth, p. 255</ref> Trist was instructed to seek the cession of Alta California, New Mexico, and [[Baja California Peninsula|Baja California]], recognition of the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas, and U.S. access across the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]].<ref name=merry360361/> Trist was authorized to make a payment of up to $30 million in exchange for these concessions.<ref name=merry360361>Merry, pp. 360–361</ref>

In August 1847, as he advanced towards Mexico City, Scott defeated Santa Anna at the [[Battle of Contreras]] and the [[Battle of Churubusco]].<ref name=merry381382>Merry, pp. 381–382</ref> With the Americans at the gates of Mexico City, Trist negotiated with commissioners, but the Mexicans were willing to give up little.<ref>Pletcher, pp. 518–520</ref> Scott prepared [[Battle for Mexico City|to take Mexico City]], which he did in mid-September.<ref>Woodworth, pp. 276–296</ref> In the United States, a heated political debate emerged regarding how much of Mexico the United States should seek to annex, Whigs such as Henry Clay arguing that the United States should only seek to settle the Texas border question, and some expansionists arguing for the [[All of Mexico Movement|annexation of all of Mexico]].<ref name=merry394397>Merry, pp. 394–397</ref> War opponents were also active; Whig Congressman [[Abraham Lincoln]] of Illinois introduced the "exact spot" resolutions, calling on Polk to state exactly where American blood had been shed on American soil to start the war, but the House refused to consider them.<ref>Woodworth, p. 293</ref>

===== Peace: the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo =====
[[File:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.png|thumb|The [[Mexican Cession]] (in red) was acquired through the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]. The [[Gadsden Purchase]] (in orange) was acquired through purchase after Polk left office.]]

Frustrated by a lack of progress in negotiations, Polk ordered Trist to return to Washington, but the diplomat, when the notice of recall arrived in mid-November 1847, ignored the order, deciding to remain and writing a lengthy letter to Polk the following month to justify his decision. Polk considered having Butler, designated as Scott's replacement, forcibly remove him from Mexico City.<ref>Leonard, pp. 177–178</ref> Though outraged by Trist's defiance, Polk decided to allow him some time to negotiate a treaty.<ref name=merry420421>Merry, pp. 420–421</ref>

Throughout January 1848, Trist regularly met with officials in Mexico City, though at the request of the Mexicans, the treaty signing took place in Guadalupe Hidalgo, a small town near Mexico City. Trist was willing to allow Mexico to keep Baja California, as his instructions allowed, but successfully haggled for the inclusion of the important harbor of [[San Diego]] in a cession of Alta California. Provisions included the Rio Grande border and a $15 million payment to Mexico. On February 2, 1848, Trist and the Mexican delegation signed the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]]. Polk received the document on February 19,<ref>Borneman, pp. 308–309</ref><ref>Pletcher, p. 517</ref> and, after the Cabinet met on the 20th, decided he had no choice but to accept it. If he turned it down, with the House by then controlled by the Whigs, there was no assurance Congress would vote funding to continue the war. Both Buchanan and Walker dissented, wanting more land from Mexico, a position with which the President was sympathetic, though he considered Buchanan's view motivated by his ambition.<ref>Greenberg, pp. 260–261</ref>

Some senators opposed the treaty because they wanted to take no Mexican territory; others hesitated because of the irregular nature of Trist's negotiations. Polk waited in suspense for two weeks as the Senate considered it, sometimes hearing that it would likely be defeated and that Buchanan and Walker were working against it. He was relieved when the two Cabinet officers lobbied on behalf of the treaty. On March 10, the Senate ratified the treaty in a 38–14 vote, a vote that cut across partisan and geographic lines.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 104–105</ref> The Senate made some modifications to the treaty before ratification, and Polk worried that the Mexican government would reject them. On June 7, Polk learned that Mexico had ratified the treaty.<ref name=merry448450>Merry, pp. 448–450</ref> Polk declared the treaty in effect as of July 4, 1848, thus ending the war.<ref name="Leonard, p. 180">Leonard, p. 180</ref> With the acquisition of California, Polk had accomplished all four of his major presidential goals.<ref name=merry448450/> With the exception of the territory acquired by the 1853 [[Gadsden Purchase]], and some later minor adjustments, the territorial acquisitions under Polk established the modern borders of the [[Contiguous United States]].<ref name="Leonard, p. 180"/>

==== Postwar and the territories ====
[[File:United States 1845-03-1845-12.png|thumb|United States states and territories when Polk entered office]]
[[File:United States 1849-1850.png|thumb|United States states and territories when Polk left office]]

Polk was anxious to establish a territorial government for Oregon but the matter became embroiled in the arguments over slavery, though few thought Oregon suitable for it. Bills to establish a territorial government passed the House twice but died in the Senate. By the time Congress met again in December, California and New Mexico were in U.S. hands, and Polk in his annual message urged the establishment of territorial governments in all three.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 202–205</ref> The [[Missouri Compromise]] had settled the issue of the geographic reach of slavery within the [[Louisiana Purchase]] by prohibiting slavery in states north of 36°30′ latitude, and Polk sought to extend this line into the newly acquired territory.<ref name=merry452453>Merry, pp. 452–453</ref> This would have made slavery illegal in Oregon and San Francisco but allowed it in Los Angeles.<ref>Dusinberre, p. 143</ref> Such an extension of slavery was defeated in the House by a bipartisan alliance of Northerners.<ref>Merry, pp. 458–459</ref> In 1848 Polk signed a bill to establish the [[Oregon Territory|Territory of Oregon]] and prohibit slavery in it.<ref>Merry, pp. 460–461</ref>

In December 1848, Polk sought to establish territorial governments in California and New Mexico, a task made especially urgent by the onset of the [[California Gold Rush]].<ref>Bergeron, p. 208</ref> The divisive issue of slavery blocked the idea. Finally in the [[Compromise of 1850]] the issue was resolved.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 210–211</ref>

Polk had misgivings about a bill creating the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]] (March 3, 1849). He feared the federal government usurping power over public lands from the states. Nevertheless, he signed the bill.<ref>Borneman, pp. 334–45</ref>

==== Other initiatives ====
Polk's ambassador to the [[Republic of New Granada]], [[Benjamin Alden Bidlack]], negotiated the [[Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty]].<ref name="Conniff1">Conniff, pp. 19–20, 33</ref> Though Washington had initially only sought to remove tariffs on American goods, Bidlack and New Granadan's Foreign Minister negotiated a broad agreement that deepened military and trade ties. A U.S. guarantee of New Granada's sovereignty over the [[Isthmus of Panama]] was also included.<ref name="Conniff1"/> The treaty was ratified in 1848 and in the long run it facilitated the [[Panama Canal]], built in the early 20th century.<ref name="randall1">Randall, pp. 27–33</ref> It also allowed for the construction of the [[Panama Canal Railway|Panama Railway]], which opened in 1855. The railway, built and operated by Americans and protected by the U.S. military, gave a quicker, safer journey to California and Oregon.  The agreement was the only alliance Washington made in the 19th century. It established a strong American role in [[Central America]] and was a counterweight to British influence there.<ref name="Conniff1"/>

In mid-1848, President Polk authorized his ambassador to Spain, [[Romulus Mitchell Saunders]], to negotiate the purchase of Cuba and offer Spain up to $100&nbsp;million, a large sum at the time for one territory, equal to ${{formatprice|{{inflation|US|100000000|1848}}}} in present-day terms.{{inflation-fn|US}} Cuba was close to the United States and had slavery, so the idea appealed to Southerners but was unwelcome in the North. However, Spain was still making profits in Cuba (notably in sugar, molasses, rum and tobacco), and thus the Spanish government rejected Saunders's overtures.<ref>Pletcher, pp. 571–574.</ref> Though Polk was eager to acquire Cuba, he refused to support the [[Filibuster (military)|filibuster]] expedition of [[Narciso López]], who sought to invade and take over the island as a prelude to annexation.<ref name="tchaffin1">Chaffin, p. 79</ref>

=== Domestic policy ===

==== Fiscal policy ====
[[File:James Knox Polk by GPA Healy, 1858.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Polk's official White House portrait, by [[George Peter Alexander Healy]], 1858]]
In his inaugural address, Polk called upon Congress to re-establish the [[Independent Treasury]] System under which government funds were held in the Treasury and not in banks or other financial institutions.<ref name=merry206207/> President Van Buren had previously established a similar system, but it had been abolished during the Tyler administration.<ref name=sieg121122>Seigenthaler, pp. 121–122</ref> Polk made clear his opposition to a national bank in his inaugural address, and in his first annual message to Congress in December 1845, he called for the government to keep its funds itself. Congress was slow to act; the House passed a bill in April 1846 and the Senate in August, both without a single Whig vote.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 191–193</ref> Polk signed the Independent Treasury Act into law on August 6, 1846.<ref name=Merry273/> The act provided that the public revenues were to be retained in the [[Treasury Building (Washington, D.C.)|Treasury building]] and in sub-treasuries in various cities, separate from private or state banks.<ref name=Merry273>Merry, p. 273</ref> The system would remain in place until the passage of the [[Federal Reserve Act]] in 1913.<ref name=Merry276-277>Merry, pp. 276–277</ref>

Polk's other major domestic initiative was the lowering of the tariff.<ref name=merry206207>Merry, pp. 206–207</ref> Polk directed Secretary of the Treasury Robert Walker to draft a new and lower tariff, which Polk submitted to Congress.<ref name=sieg113114>Seigenthaler, pp. 113–114</ref> After intense lobbying by both sides, the bill passed the House and, in a close vote that required Vice President Dallas to [[List of tie-breaking votes cast by vice presidents of the United States|break a tie]], the Senate in July 1846.<ref name=sieg115116>Seigenthaler, pp. 115–116</ref> Dallas, although from protectionist Pennsylvania, voted for the bill, having decided his best political prospects lay in supporting the administration.<ref>Pletcher, p. 419</ref> Polk signed the [[Walker tariff|Walker Tariff]] into law, substantially reducing the rates that had been set by the Tariff of 1842.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://millercenter.org/president/keyevents/polk |title=American President: A Reference Resource Key Events in the Presidency of James K. Polk |author=Miller Center of Public Affairs |publisher=millercenter.org |year=2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606074743/http://millercenter.org/president/keyevents/polk |archive-date=June 6, 2013 |author-link=Miller Center of Public Affairs }}</ref> The reduction of tariffs in the United States and the repeal of the Corn Laws in Great Britain led to a boom in Anglo-American trade.<ref name=Merry276-277/>

==== Development of the country ====
Congress passed the [[Rivers and Harbors Bill]] in 1846 to provide $500,000 to improve port facilities, but Polk vetoed it. Polk believed that the bill was unconstitutional because it unfairly favored particular areas, including ports that had no foreign trade. Polk considered internal improvements to be matters for the states, and feared that passing the bill would encourage legislators to compete for favors for their home district—a type of [[Political corruption|corruption]] that he felt would spell doom to the [[Republicanism in the United States|virtue of the republic]].<ref>Yonatan Eyal, ''The Young America movement and the Transformation of the Democratic Party'' (2007) p. 63</ref> In this regard he followed his hero Jackson, who had vetoed the [[Maysville Road veto|Maysville Road Bill]] in 1830 on similar grounds.<ref>Mark Eaton Byrnes, ''James K. Polk: a biographical companion'' (2001) p. 44</ref>

Opposed by conviction to Federal funding for internal improvements, Polk stood strongly against all such bills.<ref name = "a" /> Congress, in 1847, passed another internal improvements bill; he [[pocket veto]]ed it and sent Congress a full veto message when it met in December. Similar bills continued to advance in Congress in 1848, though none reached his desk.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 196–198</ref> When he came to the Capitol to sign bills on March 3, 1849, the last day of the congressional session and his final full day in office, he feared that an internal improvements bill would pass Congress, and he brought with him a draft veto message. The bill did not pass, so it was not needed, but feeling the draft had been ably written, he had it preserved among his papers.<ref name = "a" />

[[File:California Clipper 500 (edited).jpg|thumb|left|alt=a print advertisement, showing a mining camp and a sailing ship|The [[California Gold Rush]] began in Polk's last days in office.]]
[[File:Polkcabinet1849edited.png|thumb|Polk's cabinet in 1849]]
Authoritative word of the discovery of gold in California did not arrive in Washington until after the 1848 election, by which time Polk was a lame duck. Polk's political adversaries had claimed California was too far away to be useful and was not worth the price paid to Mexico. The President was delighted by the news, seeing it as validation of his stance on expansion, and referred to the discovery several times in his final annual message to Congress that December. Shortly thereafter, actual samples of the California gold arrived, and Polk sent a special message to Congress on the subject. The message, confirming less authoritative reports, caused large numbers of people to move to California, both from the U.S. and abroad, thus helping to spark the [[California Gold Rush]].<ref>Woodworth, pp. 319–321</ref>

==== Judicial appointments ====
{{Main|List of federal judges appointed by James K. Polk}}

Polk appointed the following justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]]:

{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
!Justice!!Position!!Began active<br />service!!Ended active<br />service
|-
| [[Levi Woodbury]] || Seat 2 || data-sort-value="18450920" | September 20, 1845{{efn| A [[recess appointment]]; formally nominated on December 23, 1845, confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] on January 3, 1846, and received commission on January 3, 1846.}} || data-sort-value="18510904" |September 4, 1851
|-
| [[Robert Cooper Grier]] || Seat 3 || data-sort-value="18460804" | August 4, 1846 || data-sort-value="18700131" |January 31, 1870
|}
[[Image:JdgLWoodbury.jpg|thumb|175px|Associate Justice Levi Woodbury ({{Circa|1850}})]]

[[File:Robert Cooper Grier - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Robert C. Grier]], one of President Polk's two appointees to the Supreme Court]]
The 1844 death of Justice [[Henry Baldwin (judge)|Henry Baldwin]] left a vacant place on the Supreme Court, but Tyler had been unable to get the Senate to confirm a nominee. At the time, it was the custom to have a geographic balance on the Supreme Court, and Baldwin had been from Pennsylvania. Polk's efforts to fill Baldwin's seat became embroiled in Pennsylvania politics and the efforts of factional leaders to secure the lucrative post of Collector of Customs for the Port of Philadelphia. As Polk attempted to find his way through the minefield of Pennsylvania politics, a second position on the high court became vacant with the death, in September 1845, of Justice [[Joseph Story]]; his replacement was expected to come from his native New England. Because Story's death had occurred while the Senate was not in session, Polk was able to make a [[recess appointment]], choosing Senator [[Levi Woodbury]] of New Hampshire, and when the Senate reconvened in December 1845, Woodbury was confirmed. Polk's initial nominee for Baldwin's seat, [[George W. Woodward]], was rejected by the Senate in January 1846, in large part due to the opposition of Buchanan and Pennsylvania Senator [[Simon Cameron]].<ref>Bergeron, pp. 163–164</ref><ref>Merry, pp. 220–221</ref>

Despite Polk's anger at Buchanan, he eventually offered the Secretary of State the seat, but Buchanan, after some indecision, turned it down. Polk subsequently nominated [[Robert Cooper Grier]] of Pittsburgh, who won confirmation.<ref>Bergeron, pp. 164–166</ref> Justice Woodbury died in 1851,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Oyez|title=Levi Woodbury|url=http://www.oyez.org/justices/levi_woodbury|access-date=December 31, 2017}}</ref> but Grier served until 1870 and in the slavery case of ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' (1857) wrote an opinion stating that slaves were property and could not sue.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Oyez|title=Robert C. Grier|url=http://www.oyez.org/justices/robert_c_grier|access-date=December 31, 2017}}</ref>

Polk appointed eight other federal judges, one to the [[United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia]], and seven to various [[United States district court]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, 1789–present|publisher=Federal Judicial Center |url=https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/search/advanced-search|access-date=December 22, 2017 }} Searches run from page by choosing "select research categories" then check "court type" and "nominating president", then select type of court and James K. Polk.</ref>