Editing Indian Ocean (section)

==Biodiversity==
Of Earth's 36 [[biodiversity hotspot]]s nine (or 25%) are located on the margins of the Indian Ocean.
[[File:Vogeleiland.jpg|thumb|Madagascar's [[elephant bird]], Mauritius's [[dodo]] bird and ostrich (from left to right)]]
* Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean (Comoros, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, the Seychelles, and Socotra), includes 13,000 (11,600 endemic) species of plants; 313 (183) birds; reptiles 381 (367); 164 (97) freshwater fishes; 250 (249) amphibians; and 200 (192) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12">{{Harvnb|Mittermeier|Turner|Larsen|Brooks|2011|loc=Table 1.2, pp. 12–13}}</ref>
The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the [[chameleon]]s, for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on the islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the [[dung beetle]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Origin and Diversification of Dung Beetles in Madagascar|first1=Andreia|last1=Miraldo|first2=Helena|last2=Wirta|first3=Ilkka|last3=Hanski|date=20 April 2011|journal=Insects|volume=2|issue=2|pages=112–127|doi=10.3390/insects2020112|doi-access=free|pmid=26467617|pmc=4553453}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wirta|first1=Helena|last2=Orsini|first2=Luisa|last3=Hanski|first3=Ilkka|title=An old adaptive radiation of forest dung beetles in Madagascar|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|date=June 2008|volume=47|issue=3|pages=1076–1089|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.03.010|pmid=18424187|bibcode=2008MolPE..47.1076W|s2cid=7509190|url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/275432}}</ref> [[day gecko]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Radtkey|first1=Ray R.|title=Adaptive radiation of day-geckos (''Phelsuma'') in the Seychelles Archipelago: A phylogenetic analysis|journal=Evolution|date=April 1996|volume=50|issue=2|pages=604–623|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1996.tb03872.x|pmid=28568942}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Autumn|first1=Kellar|last2=Niewiarowski|first2=Peter H.|last3=Puthoff|first3=Jonathan B.|title=Gecko Adhesion as a Model System for Integrative Biology, Interdisciplinary Science, and Bioinspired Engineering|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|date=23 November 2014|volume=45|issue=1|pages=445–470|doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091839}}</ref> and [[lemur]]s are all examples of [[adaptive radiation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Testing the adaptive radiation hypothesis for the lemurs of Madagascar|first=James P.|last=Herrera|date=31 January 2017|journal=Royal Society Open Science|volume=4|issue=1|pages=161014|doi=10.1098/rsos.161014|pmid=28280597|pmc=5319363|bibcode=2017RSOS....461014H}}</ref>
Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the [[Mare aux Songes]] swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the [[Dodo]] bird (''Raphus cucullatus'') and ''[[Cylindraspis]]'' giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests a process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rijsdijk|Hume|Bunnik|Florens|2009|loc=Abstract}}</ref>
* [[Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot|Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany]] (MPA); 8,100 (1,900 endemic) species of plants; 541 (0) birds; 205 (36) reptiles; 73 (20) freshwater fishes; 73 (11) amphibians; and 197 (3) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12" />
Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then&nbsp;— the population of [[white rhinoceros]] (''Ceratotherium simum simum'') increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including [[black rhinoceros]] (''Diceros bicornis minor''), [[African wild dog]] (''Lycaon pictus''), cheetah (''Acynonix jubatus''), elephant (''Loxodonta africana''), and lion (''Panthera leo'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Di Minin|Hunter|Balme|Smith|2013|loc="The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot is internationally recognized...""}}</ref>
* [[Coastal forests of eastern Africa]]; 4,000 (1,750 endemic) species of plants; 636 (12) birds; 250 (54) reptiles; 219 (32) freshwater fishes; 95 (10) amphibians; and 236 (7) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12" />
This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area") is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}} from the coast and covering a total area of c. {{Convert|6200|km2|abbr=on}}. It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia.<ref>{{Harvnb|WWF-EARPO|2006|loc=The unique coastal forests of eastern Africa, p. 3}}</ref>
* [[Horn of Africa]]; 5,000 (2,750 endemic) species of plants; 704 (25) birds; 284 (93) reptiles; 100 (10) freshwater fishes; 30 (6) amphibians; and 189 (18) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12" />
[[File:Vaavu Atoll, Maldives - panoramio (20).jpg|thumb|[[Coral reef]]s of the Maldives]]
This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], the [[East African Rift|East African Rift valley]], the [[Socotra]] islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the [[dibatag]] (''Ammodorcas clarkei'') and [[Speke's gazelle]] (''Gazella spekei''); the [[Somali wild ass]] (''Equus africanus somaliensis'') and [[hamadryas baboon]] (''Papio hamadryas''). It also contains many reptiles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Horn of Africa|publisher=[[Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund|CEPF]]|url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/horn-africa|access-date=18 August 2019}}</ref>
In Somalia, the centre of the {{Convert|1500000|km2|abbr=on}} hotspot, the landscape is dominated by [[Acacia]]-[[Commiphora]] deciduous bushland, but also includes the [[Yeheb nut]] (''Cordeauxia edulus'') and species discovered more recently such as the Somali [[cyclamen]] (''Cyclamen somalense''), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. [[Warsangli linnet]] (''Carduelis johannis'') is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in [[overgrazing]] which has produced one of the most degraded hotspots where only c. 5% of the original habitat remains.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ullah|Gadain|2016|loc=Importance of biodiversity, pp. 17–19; Biodiversity of Somalia, pp.25–26}}</ref>
* The [[Western Ghats]]–[[Sri Lanka]]; 5,916 (3,049 endemic) species of plants; 457 (35) birds; 265 (176) reptiles; 191 (139) freshwater fishes; 204 (156) amphibians; and 143 (27) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12" />
Encompassing the west coast of India and Sri Lanka, until c. 10,000 years ago a land bridge connected Sri Lanka to the Indian Subcontinent, hence this region shares a common community of species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bossuyt|Meegaskumbura|Beenaerts|Gower|2004}}</ref>
* [[Indo-Burma]]; 13.500 (7,000 endemic) species of plants; 1,277 (73) birds; 518 (204) reptiles; 1,262 (553) freshwater fishes; 328 (193) amphibians; and 401 (100) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12" />[[File:О. Альдабра - поднятый атолл в архипелаге Сейшельских островов.jpg|thumb|[[Aldabra giant tortoise]] from the islands of the [[Aldabra]] Atoll in the [[Seychelles]]]]
Indo-Burma encompasses a series of mountain ranges, five of Asia's largest river systems, and a wide range of habitats. The region has a long and complex geological history, and long periods [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] and glaciations have isolated ecosystems and thus promoted a high degree of endemism and [[speciation]]. The region includes two centres of endemism: the [[Annamite Mountains]] and the northern highlands on the China-Vietnam border.<ref>{{Harvnb|CEPF 2012: ''Indo-Burma''|loc=Geography, Climate, and History, p. 30}}</ref>
Several distinct [[floristic region]]s, the Indian, Malesian, Sino-Himalayan, and Indochinese regions, meet in a unique way in Indo-Burma and the hotspot contains an estimated 15,000–25,000 species of vascular plants, many of them endemic.<ref>{{Harvnb|CEPF 2012: ''Indo-Burma''|loc=Species Diversity and Endemism, p. 36}}</ref>
* [[Sundaland]]; 25,000 (15,000 endemic) species of plants; 771 (146) birds; 449 (244) reptiles; 950 (350) freshwater fishes; 258 (210) amphibians; and 397 (219) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12" />
Sundaland encompasses 17,000 islands of which Borneo and Sumatra are the largest. Endangered mammals include the [[Bornean orangutan|Bornean]] and [[Sumatran orangutan]]s, the [[proboscis monkey]], and the [[Javan rhinoceros|Javan]] and [[Sumatran rhinoceros]]es.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sundaland: About this hotspot|publisher=[[Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund|CEPF]]|url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/sundaland|access-date=1 September 2019|archive-date=6 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006110745/https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/sundaland/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Wallacea]]; 10,000 (1,500 endemic) species of plants; 650 (265) birds; 222 (99) reptiles; 250 (50) freshwater fishes; 49 (33) amphibians; and 244 (144) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12" />
* [[Southwest Australia (ecoregion)|Southwest Australia]]; 5,571 (2,948 endemic) species of plants; 285 (10) birds; 177 (27) reptiles; 20 (10) freshwater fishes; 32 (22) amphibians; and 55 (13) mammals.<ref name="Mitter-2011-p12" />
Stretching from [[Shark Bay]] to [[Israelite Bay]] and isolated by the arid [[Nullarbor Plain]], the southwestern corner of Australia is a floristic region with a stable climate in which one of the world's largest floral biodiversity and an 80% endemism has evolved. From June to September it is an explosion of colours and the Wildflower Festival in Perth in September attracts more than half a million visitors.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ryan|2009}}</ref>