Editing Hybrid vehicle (section)

==Engine type==

===Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles===
[[File:Hybrid-bus.jpg|thumb|Hybrid [[New Flyer]] [[Metrobus (Washington, D.C.)|Metrobus]]]]
[[File:Arriva North West and Wales 655.jpg|thumb|Hybrid [[Optare Solo]]]]
{{Main|Hybrid electric vehicle}}

When the term ''hybrid vehicle'' is used, it most often refers to a [[Hybrid electric vehicle]]. These encompass such vehicles as the [[Saturn Vue]], [[Toyota Prius]], [[Toyota Yaris]], [[Toyota Camry Hybrid]], [[Ford Escape Hybrid]], [[Ford Fusion Hybrid]], [[Toyota Kluger#Hybrid|Toyota Highlander Hybrid]], [[Honda Insight]], [[Honda Civic Hybrid]], [[Lexus RX 400h]], and [[Lexus RX 450h|450h]], [[Hyundai Ioniq Hybrid]], [[Hyundai Sonata Hybrid]], [[Hyundai Elantra Hybrid]], [[Kia Sportage Hybrid]], [[Kia Niro Hybrid]], [[Kia Sorento Hybrid]] and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses [[internal combustion]] engines (using a variety of fuels, generally gasoline or [[Diesel engine]]s) and [[electric motors]] to power the vehicle. The energy is stored in the fuel of the internal combustion engine and an [[electric battery|electric battery set]]. There are many [[Hybrid Vehicle Drivetrains|types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains]], from '''Full hybrid''' to [[Mild hybrid]], which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://automobiles.honda.com/tools/calculators/mileage_calculator.asp?ModelNa,e=Civic%20Hybrid#|title=Fuel Saving Calculator}}{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

William H. Patton filed a patent application for a gasoline-electric hybrid rail-car propulsion system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion system in mid 1889.<ref>{{cite patent |url= https://www.google.com/patents/US409116 |inventor=Patton, W. H. |title=Motor for Street Cars |country=US |number=409116 |gdate=1889-08-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent |url= https://www.google.com/patents/US424817 |inventor=Patton, W. H. |title=Boat |country=US |number=424817 |gdate=1890-04-01}}</ref> There is no evidence that his hybrid boat met with any success, but he built a prototype hybrid [[tram]] and sold a small [[hybrid locomotive]].<ref>{{cite journal |url={{google book|id=QoZNAAAAYAAJ|page=513|plain-url=yes}} |title=The Patton Motor |journal=The Street Railway Journal |volume=VII |number=10 |pages=513–514 |date=October 1891}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Patton Motor Car |url={{google book|id=H0c_AQAAMAAJ|page=PA524|plain-url=yes}} |journal=English Mechanic and World of Science |page=524 |number=1713 |date=1898-01-21}}</ref>

In 1899, [[Pieper|Henri Pieper]] developed the world's first petro-electric [[Hybrid vehicle drivetrain|hybrid]] automobile. In 1900, [[Ferdinand Porsche]] developed a [[Series hybrid|series-hybrid]] using two [[wheel hub motor|motor-in-wheel-hub arrangements]] with an internal combustion generator set providing the electric power; Porsche's hybrid set two-speed records.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}}
While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas, in 1978–79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to return as much as 75&nbsp;mpg with plans still sold to this original design, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version on their website.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.motherearthnews.com/Green-Transportation/1979-07-01/An-Amazing-75-MPG-Hybrid-Electic-Car.aspx |title=Electric Car Conversion: The Amazing 75-MPG Hybrid Car |first=Robert W. |last=Marshall |work=Mother Earth News |location=US |date=July 1979 |access-date=2012-04-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090508163051/http://www.motherearthnews.com/Green-Transportation/1979-07-01/An-Amazing-75-MPG-Hybrid-Electic-Car.aspx |archive-date=2009-05-08}}</ref>

The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be plugged into house (mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while the engine is running.

===Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle===
Some [[battery electric vehicle]]s can be recharged while the user drives. Such a vehicle establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate, or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanisms (see [[conduit current collection]]). The vehicle's batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged. For example, some of the battery-electric locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are capable of this mode of operation.

Developing an infrastructure for battery electric vehicles would provide the advantage of virtually unrestricted highway range. Since many destinations are within 100&nbsp;km of a major highway, this technology could reduce the need for expensive battery systems. However, private use of the existing electrical system is almost universally prohibited. Besides, the technology for such electrical infrastructure is largely outdated and, outside some cities, not widely distributed (see [[Conduit current collection]], [[trams]], [[electric (rail)|electric rail]], [[Tram|trolleys]], [[third rail]]). Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs could perhaps be funded by toll revenue or by dedicated transportation taxes.

===Hybrid fuel (dual mode)===
[[File:Ford Escape E85 Flex Plug-in Hybrid views and badging WAS 2010.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid]] with a [[flexible fuel]] capability to run on [[E85]] ([[ethanol]]) ]]
In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for [[Ground propulsion|propulsion]], some also consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("[[fuel]]s") using the same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as [[dual mode]] vehicles:
* Some [[trolleybus]]es can switch between an onboard [[diesel engine]] and [[Overhead line|overhead electrical power]] depending on conditions (see [[dual-mode bus]]). In principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true [[plug-in hybrid]] trolleybus, although {{As of|2006|lc=on}}, no such design seems to have been announced.
* [[Flexible-fuel vehicle]]s can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank—typically [[gasoline]] and [[ethanol]], [[methanol]], or [[biobutanol]].
* [[Bi-fuel vehicle]]: [[Liquified petroleum gas]] and [[natural gas]] are very different from petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be challenging to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. For example, some Chevrolet [http://www.chevrolet.com/culture/article/bi-fuel-silverado-natural-gas.html Silverado 2500 HDs] can effortlessly switch between petroleum and natural gas, offering a range of over 1000&nbsp;km (650&nbsp;miles).<ref>{{cite web|title=Bi-Fuel Silverado 2500HD Can Switch Between Gasoline And Natural Gas|url= http://www.chevrolet.com/culture/article/bi-fuel-silverado-natural-gas.html|access-date=2013-03-31}}</ref> While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range, decreased cost of fuel, and flexibility where [[Liquefied petroleum gas|LPG]] or [[CNG]] infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase. While the US Natural gas infrastructure is partially incomplete, it is increasing and in 2013 had 2600 [[CNG]] stations in place.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State|url=http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/stations_counts.html|access-date=2013-03-31}}</ref> Rising gas prices may push consumers to purchase these vehicles. In 2013 when gas prices traded around US{{convert|4.0|$/usgal|$/l|order=flip}}, the price of gasoline was US{{convert|28.00|$/MMBtu|$/MWh|lk=on|order=flip|abbr=off}}, compared to natural gas's {{convert|4.00|$/MMBtu|$/MWh|order=flip|abbr=in}}.<ref>{{cite web|last=Halber |first=Deborah |title=What is the energy of gasoline compared to the same cost of other fuels in BTUs per dollar? |url=http://engineering.mit.edu/live/news/39-what-is-the-energy-of-gasoline-compared-to-the |access-date=2013-03-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130406211227/http://engineering.mit.edu/live/news/39-what-is-the-energy-of-gasoline-compared-to-the |archive-date=2013-04-06 }}</ref> On a per unit of energy comparative basis, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline.
* Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars modified to run on [[Autogas|autogas (LPG)]] and diesels modified to run on [[waste vegetable oil]] that has not been processed into biodiesel.
* Power-assist mechanisms for [[bicycle]]s and other [[human-powered transport|human-powered vehicles]] are also included (see [[Motorized bicycle]]).

===Fluid power hybrid===
{{See also|Compressed-air car}}
[[File:2011 Chrysler Town & Country Touring - L -- 04-22-2011.jpg|thumb|right|Chrysler minivan, petro-hydraulic hybrid]]
[[File:Catvertroquette.jpg|thumb|right|French MDI petro-air hybrid car developed with Tata]]

[[Hydraulic hybrid]] and [[pneumatic hybrid vehicle]]s use an engine or regenerative braking (or both) to charge a pressure accumulator to drive the wheels via [[hydraulic]] (liquid) or [[pneumatic]] (compressed gas) drive units. In most cases the engine is detached from the drivetrain, serving solely to charge the energy accumulator. The transmission is seamless. Regenerative braking can be used to recover some of the supplied drive energy back into the accumulator.

====Petro-air hybrid====
A French company, [[Motor Development International|MDI]], has designed and has running models of a petro-air hybrid engine car. The system does not use air motors to drive the vehicle, being directly driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a mixture of compressed air and gasoline injected into the cylinders.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.aircars.tk/ |title=Learn everything about the compressed air cars! |website=Aircars.tk |access-date=2013-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520152900/http://aircars.tk/ |archive-date=2013-05-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A key aspect of the hybrid engine is the "active chamber", which is a compartment heating air via fuel doubling the energy output.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefuture.net.nz/mdi_tech.htm |title=MDI's active chamber |website=Thefuture.net.nz |access-date=2010-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507151344/http://www.thefuture.net.nz/mdi_tech.htm |archive-date=2011-05-07 }}</ref> [[Tata Motors]] of India assessed the design phase towards full production for the Indian market and moved into "completing detailed development of the compressed air engine into specific vehicle and stationary applications".<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.tatamotors.com/media/press-releases.php?id=750 |title=MDI's air engine technology tested on Tata Motors vehicles |publisher=Tata Motors |date=2012-05-07 |access-date=2013-04-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130509064540/http://www.tatamotors.com/media/press-releases.php?id=750 |archive-date=2013-05-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gizmag.com/tata-motors-air-car-mdi/22447/ |title=Tata Motors enters second phase of air-car development |website=Gizmag.com |date=2013-05-07 |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref>

====Petro-hydraulic hybrid====
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air SAO 2014 0304.JPG|image2=Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air SAO 2014 0299.JPG|width=220|caption1=Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic concept car|caption2=Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic cutaway}}
Petro-hydraulic configurations have been common in trains and heavy vehicles for decades. The auto industry recently focused on this hybrid configuration as it now shows promise for introduction into smaller vehicles.

In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the [[energy recovery]] rate is high and therefore the system is more efficient than electric battery charged hybrids using the current electric battery technology, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in [[energy economy]] in US [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) testing.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/otaq/technology/420f05006.htm EPA Announces Partnership to Demonstrate World's First Full Hydraulic Hybrid Urban Delivery Vehicle | Modeling, Testing, and Research | US EPA]. Epa.gov. Retrieved on 2012-04-18. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809043402/http://www.epa.gov/otaq/technology/420f05006.htm |date=2011-08-09 }}</ref> The charging engine needs only to be sized for average usage with acceleration bursts using the stored energy in the hydraulic accumulator, which is charged when in low energy demanding vehicle operation. The charging engine runs at optimum speed and load for efficiency and longevity. Under tests undertaken by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a hydraulic hybrid [[Ford Expedition]] returned {{convert|32|mpgus}} City, and {{convert|22|mpgus}} highway.<ref name="demo-veh"/><ref name="Capturing the power of hydraulics"/> [[United Parcel Service|UPS]] currently has two trucks in service using this technology.<ref name="autoblog.com"/>

Although petro-hydraulic hybrid technology has been known for decades and used in trains as well as very large construction vehicles, the high costs of the equipment precluded the systems from lighter trucks and cars. In the modern sense, an experiment proved the viability of small petro-hydraulic hybrid road vehicles in 1978. A group of students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a [[VW Beetle|Volkswagen Beetle]] car to run as a petro-hydraulic hybrid using off-the-shelf components. A car rated at {{convert|32|mpgus|abbr=on}} was returning {{convert|75|mpgus|abbr=on}} with the 60&nbsp;hp engine replaced by a 16&nbsp;hp engine. The experimental car reached {{convert|70|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Mother Earth News"/>

In the 1990s, a team of engineers working at EPA's National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory succeeded in developing a revolutionary type of petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain that would propel a typical American sedan car. The test car achieved over 80&nbsp;mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60&nbsp;mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9&nbsp;L diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the base cost of the vehicle.<ref name="demo-veh"/>

The petro-hydraulic hybrid system has a faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling than petro-electric hybrids and is also cheaper to build. The accumulator vessel size dictates total energy storage capacity and may require more space than an electric battery set. Any vehicle space consumed by a larger size of accumulator vessel may be offset by the need for a smaller sized charging engine, in HP and physical size.

Research is underway in large corporations and small companies. The focus has now switched to smaller vehicles. The system components were expensive which precluded installation in smaller trucks and cars. A drawback was that the power driving motors were not efficient enough at part load. A British company ([[Artemis Intelligent Power]]) made a breakthrough introducing an electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump, the Digital Displacement® motor/pump. The pump is highly efficient at all speed ranges and loads, giving feasibility to small applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://artemisip.com/our-technology |title=Our Technology &#124; Artemis Intelligent Power |access-date=2013-10-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131017071459/http://www.artemisip.com/our-technology |archive-date=2013-10-17 }}</ref> The company converted a BMW car as a test bed to prove viability. The BMW 530i gave double the mpg in city driving compared to the standard car. This test was using the standard 3,000&nbsp;cc engine, with a smaller engine the figures would have been more impressive. The design of petro-hydraulic hybrids using well sized accumulators allows downsizing an engine to average power usage, not peak power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy stored in the accumulator. A smaller more efficient constant speed engine reduces weight and liberates space for a larger accumulator.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.artemisip.com/applications/on-road|title=On-road|access-date=2015-05-30|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150525063540/http://www.artemisip.com/applications/on-road|archive-date=2015-05-25|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechanicals of existing engine/transmission setups. It is restrictive and far from ideal to install petro-hydraulic mechanicals into existing bodies not designed for hydraulic setups. One research project's goal is to create a blank paper design new car, to maximize the packaging of petro-hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle. All bulky hydraulic components are integrated into the chassis of the car. One design has claimed to return 130 mpg in tests by using a large hydraulic accumulator which is also the structural chassis of the car. The small hydraulic driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs driving the wheels and reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The hub motors eliminate the need for friction brakes, mechanical transmissions, driveshafts, and U-joints, reducing costs and weight. Hydrostatic drive with no friction brakes is used in industrial vehicles.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.mmh.com/article/lift_trucks_15_ways_the_lift_truck_is_evolving/D2/ |title=Lift Trucks: 15 ways the lift truck is evolving - Article from Modern Materials Handling |publisher=Modern Materials Handling |date=2011-08-01 |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref> The aim is 170&nbsp;mpg in average driving conditions. The energy created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that normally would be wasted assists in charging the accumulator. A small fossil-fuelled piston engine sized for average power use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized at running the car for 15 minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully charged accumulator that will produce a 0-60&nbsp;mph acceleration speed of under 5 seconds using four wheel drive.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://inhabitat.com/hybrid-hydraulic-drive-vehicle-promises-170-mpg/ |first=Philip |last=Proefrock |title=Hybrid Hydraulic Drive Vehicle Promises 170 MPG |publisher=Inhabitat |date=2010-03-25 |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.torquenews.com/1080/ingocar-valentin-tech-shatters-way-we-think-about-cars |first=Aaron |last=Turpen |title=INGOCAR from Valentin Tech shatters the way we think about cars |website=Torquenews.com |date=2012-02-15 |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.valentintechnologies.com/default.asp |title=Welcome |website=Valentintechnologies.com |access-date=2013-04-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130421115904/http://www.valentintechnologies.com/default.asp |archive-date=2013-04-21 }}</ref>

In January 2011 industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an experimental petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in large passenger cars. In 2012 an existing production minivan was adapted to the new hydraulic powertrain for assessment.<ref name="demo-veh"/><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.gizmag.com/chrysler-announces-development-of-hydraulic-hybrid-technology-for-cars/17686/ |first=Mike |last=Hanlon |title=Chrysler announces development of hydraulic hybrid technology for cars |website=Gizmag.com |date=2011-01-26 |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url= http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/0/837c1d022dba18448525781d005995be?OpenDocument |title=EPA and Chrysler to Take Latest Hybrid Technology from Lab to Street/Partnership to adapt fuel efficient technology |website=Yosemite.epa.gov |date=2011-01-19 |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://epa.gov/otaq/technology/research/research-hhvs.htm |title=Hydraulic Hybrid Research |publisher=US EPA |date=2010-10-18 |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref>

[[PSA Peugeot Citroën]] exhibited an experimental "Hybrid Air" engine at the 2013 [[Geneva Motor Show]].<ref name=OG032313>{{cite news|title=Peugeot's Hybrid Air: the car of the future that runs on air|url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/mar/24/peugeot-hybrid-air-car-future |access-date=2013-03-25|newspaper=The Observer The Guardian|date=2013-03-23 |first=Tim |last=Lewis}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://inhabitat.com/peugeot-announces-plans-to-release-a-hybrid-car-that-runs-on-compressed-air-by-2016/ |title=Peugeot Announces Plans to Release a Hybrid Car That Runs on Compressed Air by 2016|author=Marc Carter|date=25 January 2013|access-date=2015-05-30}}</ref> The vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by energy harvested from braking or deceleration to power a hydraulic drive which supplements power from its conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic and electronic components were supplied by [[Robert Bosch GmbH]]. Mileage was estimated to be about {{convert|118|mpgus|abbr=on|0}} on the Euro test cycle if installed in a [[Citroën C3]] type of body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.caranddriver.com/a-pair-of-peugeots-debuts-in-paris-one-prescient-and-possibly-good-for-118-mpg-one-practical/|title=A Pair of Peugeots Debuts in Paris: One Prescient (and Possibly Good for 118 mpg), One Practical|date=2014-10-02|access-date=2015-06-30|archive-date=2015-09-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905072021/http://blog.caranddriver.com/a-pair-of-peugeots-debuts-in-paris-one-prescient-and-possibly-good-for-118-mpg-one-practical/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=NYT030113>{{cite news|title=Compressing Gas for a Cheaper, Simpler Hybrid|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/03/automobiles/compressing-gas-for-a-cheaper-simpler-hybrid.html|access-date=2013-03-02|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2013-03-01|first=David |last=Jolly}}</ref> PSA Although the car was ready for production and was proven and feasible delivering the claimed results, Peugeot Citroën were unable to attract a major manufacturer to share the high development costs and are shelving the project until a partnership can be arranged.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/psa-peugeot-citroen-seeks-partners-hybrid-air-tech|title=PSA puts Hybrid Air technology on back burner|website=Autocar}}</ref>

===Electric-human power hybrid vehicle===
Another form of a hybrid vehicle are the human-powered electric vehicles. These include such vehicles as the [[Sinclair C5]], [[Twike]], [[electric bicycle]]s, [[electric skateboard]]s, and [[Electric motorcycles and scooters]]