Editing History of skiing (section)

==Evolution of equipment==

===Skis===
{{Main article|Ski#History}}

Asymmetrical skis were used at least in northern Finland and Sweden up until the 1930s.<ref name=Historical_dictionary_of_Skiing/> On one leg, the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal [[Ski skins|skin]] to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in a similar manner to modern [[ski wax]]ing. An early record of this type of skis survives in the works of [[Olaus Magnus]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Magnus |first=Olaus |author-link=Olaus Magnus |date=1555 |title=[[Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus]] |location=Rome |at=First Book, Chapter IIII, Pages 13-14 |quote=Modus celerimus currendi i lignis planis pedibus affixis.}}</ref> He associates them to [[Sami people]] and gives [[Sami languages|Sami]] names of 'savek' and 'golos' for the plain and skinned short ski. Finnish names for these are ''lyly and kalhu'' for long and short ski.

The seal hunters at the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] had developed a special long ski to sneak into shooting distance to the seals' breathing holes, though the ski was useful in moving in the packed ice in general and was made especially long, 3–4 meters, to protect against cracks in the ice. This is called skredstång in Swedish.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.vbm.se/assets/files/Pdf/Vbn_history_69f/1971_2.pdf |title=Jaktredskap och jaktmetoder |last=Gustafsson |first=Peter |date=1971 |journal=Västerbotten |number=2 |page=78 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328015138/http://www.vbm.se/assets/files/pdf/vbn_history_69f/1971_2.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-28}}</ref>

Around 1850, artisans in Telemark, Norway, invent the cambered ski. This ski arches up in the middle, under the binding, which distributes the skier's weight more evenly across the length of the ski. Earlier plank-style skis had to be thick enough not to bow downward and sink in the snow under the skier's weight.<ref name="Evolution of Ski Shape">{{cite web|last=Masia|first=Seth|title=Evolution of Ski Shape|url=http://skiinghistory.org/history/evolution-ski-shape/ |website=International Skiing History Association |access-date=15 November 2012}}</ref> Norheim's ski was also the first with a [[sidecut]] that narrowed the ski underfoot while the tip and tail remained wider. This enabled the ski to flex and turn more easily.<ref name="Evolution of Ski Shape" />

In 1950, [[Howard Head]] introduced the [[Head Standard]], constructed by sandwiching aluminum alloy around a [[plywood]] core. The design included steel edges (invented in 1928 in [[Austria]],<ref name="Evolution of Ski Shape"/>) and the exterior surfaces were made of [[phenol formaldehyde resin]] which could hold wax. This hugely successful ski was unique at the time in having been designed for the recreational market, rather than for racing.<ref name=fry>{{cite book |last=Fry |first=John |title=The story of modern skiing |year=2006 |publisher=University Press of New England |location=Hanover |isbn=978-1-58465-489-6}}</ref>
1962: a [[fibreglass]] ski, [[Kneissl]]'s White Star, was used by [[Karl Schranz]] to win two gold medals at the [[FIS Alpine World Ski Championships]].<ref name=fry/> By the late '60s, fibreglass had mostly replaced aluminum.

In 1975, the [[torsion box]] ski construction design is patented.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bjertaes |first=Gunnar |title=Patent number: 4005875 Ski construction of the torsion box type |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US4005875 |publisher=US Patent Office|access-date=15 November 2012}}</ref> The patent is referenced by Kästle, Salomon, [[Rottefella]], and [[Madshus]], but in fact, torsion box skis became common beginning in 1962 with the introduction of the Dynamic VR7 and VR17 race skis.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Lund|first=Morten|title=Eight Classics: These Skis made history |magazine=Ski |date=January 1975|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-HCBlUw6EMC&q=dynamic+michal+torsion+box&pg=PT3}}</ref> In 1993, [[Elan (company)|Elan]] introduced the [[Elan SCX]]. These introduced a new ski geometry, common today, with a much wider tip and tail than waist. When tipped onto their edges, they bend into a curved shape and carve a turn. Other companies quickly followed suit, and it was realized in retrospect that "It turns out that everything we thought we knew for forty years was wrong."<ref name="Evolution of Ski Shape"/> The modern [[Twin-tip ski]] was introduced by [[Line Skis|Line]] in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://lineskis.com/innovation |title=Skiing the wrong way since '95 |website=Line Skis |access-date=2013-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007000859/http://lineskis.com/innovation |archive-date=2013-10-07 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Bindings ===
{{Main article|Ski binding#History}}
[[File:Old ski binding.jpg|thumb|Old ski binding]]
In the early days of skiing the binding was also similar to those of a contemporary snowshoe, generally consisting of a leather strap fastened over the toe of the boot. In the 1800s, skiing evolved into a sport and the toe strap was replaced by a metal clip under the toe. This provided a much greater grip on the boot, allowing the ski to be pushed sideways. The heel strap also changed over time; in order to allow a greater range of motion, a spring was added to allow the strap to lengthen when the boot was rotated up off the ski.

This buckled strap was later replaced by a metal cable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lert |first1=Wolfgang |title=A Binding Revolution |journal=Skiing Heritage Journal |date=March 2002 |page=26}}</ref> The cable binding remained in use, and even increased in popularity, throughout this period as cross-country skiing developed into a major sport of its own. Change eventually came through the evolution of the [[Rottefella]] binding, first introduced in 1927. The original Rottefella eliminated the heel strap, which held the boot forward in the binding, by drilling small holes in the sole of the boot which fit into pins in the toe piece. This was standardized as the 3-pin system, which was widespread by the 1970s.<ref name=rot>{{cite web |url=http://www.rottefella.no/en/Our-history/ |title=About Us |website=Rottefella |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906104003/http://www.rottefella.no/en/Our-history/ |archive-date=2015-09-06}}</ref> It has now generally been replaced by the NNN system.

The introduction of [[ski lift]]s in 1908 led to the evolution of alpine skiing as a sport. In the past, skiers would have to ski or walk up the hills they intended to ski down. With the lift, the skiers could leave their skis on and would be skiing downhill all the time. The need to unclip the heel for cross-country use was eliminated, at least at resorts with lifts. As lifts became more common, especially with the introduction of the chairlift in 1936, the ski world split into cross-country and downhill, a split that remains to this day.

In 1937, [[Hjalmar Hvam]] broke his leg skiing, and while recuperating from surgery, invented the Saf-Ski toe binding.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Masia |first1=Seth |title=Release! History of Safety Bindings |url=https://skiinghistory.org/history/release-history-safety-bindings |website=International Skiing History Association |access-date=13 October 2014}}</ref>

=== Boots ===
{{Main article|Ski boot#History}}

[[File:SMOM_Bass_boot.JPG|thumb|right|A typical "universal" ski boot of the leather era. This example, by G. H. Bass, includes an indentation around the heel where the cable binding would fit, and a metal plate at the toe for a Saf-Ski release binding. The leather strap is a "long thong", used by downhill skiers to offer some level of lateral control.]]

Ski boots were [[leather]] winter boots, held to the ski with leather straps. As skiing became more specialized, so too did ski boots, leading to the splitting of designs between those for [[alpine skiing]] and [[cross-country skiing (sport)|cross-country skiing]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.skiinghistory.org/news/short-colorful-history-ski-boots |title=A Short, Colorful History of Ski Boots |last=Masia |first=Seth |website=International Skiing History Association}}</ref>

Modern skiing developed as an all-around sport with uphill, downhill, and cross-country portions. The introduction of the [[cable binding]] started a parallel evolution of binding and boot.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wlgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25 |title=A Binding Revolution |last=Lert |first=Wolfgang |date=March 2002 |journal=Ski Heritage Journal |pages=25–26}}</ref> Boots with the sole extended rearward to produce a flange for the cable to firmly latch became common, as did designs with semi-circular indentations on the heel for the same purpose.

With the introduction of ski lifts, the need for skiing to get to the top of the hill was eliminated, and a much stiffer design was preferred, providing better control over the ski when sliding downhill.

===Glide and grip===
{{main article|Ski wax#History}}
Johannes Scheffer in ''Argentoratensis Lapponiæ'' ("History of Lapland") in 1673 probably gave the first recorded instruction for ski wax application<ref>{{Cite thesis |type=Licentiate |title=Investigation of the most essential factors influencing ski glide |url=http://epubl.ltu.se/1402-1757/2006/03/LTU-LIC-0603-SE.pdf |last=Kuzmin |first=Leonid |year=2006 |publisher=Luleå University of Technology |access-date=2012-10-20 |archive-date=8 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060208030005/http://epubl.ltu.se/1402-1757/2006/03/LTU-LIC-0603-SE.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> He advised skiers to use pine tar pitch and rosin. Ski waxing was also documented in 1761.<ref>{{cite book |author=Oberleutnant Hals |title=Om Skismøring |publisher=Skienes Verden |location=Vaage |pages=254}}</ref>

1934 saw limited production of solid [[aluminum]] skis in [[France]]. Wax does not stick to aluminum, so the base under the foot included grips to prevent backsliding, a precursor of modern fish scale waxless skis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Masia |first=Seth |title=The Wonderful Waxless Ski |journal=Skiing Heritage |date=September 2003 |volume=15 |issue=3}}</ref> In 1970 waxless [[Nordic skiing|Nordic]] skis were made with fishscale bases.<ref name=fry/> Klister, a sticky material, which provides grip on snow of all temperatures that has become coarse-grained as a result of multiple freeze-thaw cycles or wind packing, was invented and patented in 1913 by [[:no:Peter Østbye (skiprodusent)|Peter Østbye]].<ref name=waxing>{{cite magazine |last=Woodward |first=Bob |title=Ski wax made (somewhat) simple—Confused by the wax rainbow? Maybe you've gone too far |magazine=Backpacker |page=14 |publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc. |date=January 1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=698DAAAAMBAJ&q=klister+wax&pg=PA14 |access-date=2016-01-16}}</ref> Recent advancements in wax have been the use of [[surfactants]], introduced in 1974 by [[Hertel Wax]], and [[fluorocarbons]], introduced in 1986, to increase water and dirt repellency and increase glide.<ref name=gripandglide>{{cite web |last1=Masia |first1=Seth |title=Grip and Glide: A Short History of Ski Wax |url=https://www.skiinghistory.org/history/grip-and-glide-short-history-ski-wax |website=International Skiing History Association |access-date=11 October 2014}}</ref> Many companies, including [[Swix]], Toko, Holmenkol, Briko, and Maplus are dedicated to ski wax production and have developed a range of products to cover various conditions.

===Poles===
{{main article|Ski pole#History}}
Early skiers used one long pole or spear. The first depiction of a skier with two [[ski pole]]s dates to 1741.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hergstrom |first=P. |title=Beschreibung von dem unter schwedischer Krone gehörigen Lappland |year=1748 |publisher=von Rother |location=Leipzig}}</ref> In 1959 Ed Scott introduced the large-diameter, tapered shaft, lightweight aluminum ski pole.<ref name=fry/>

Early adaptations of the ski pole featured wood or metal baskets above the tip. These designs were deemed too heavy, and following the conclusion of [[World War II]], it became much more common to make the baskets out of some plastic material, a practice which has continued until today.<ref name="Historical_dictionary_of_Skiing" />

In order to better adapt to different styles of skiing, modern skiers use a slightly different pole for each type of skiing. In racing, the poles are typically a much lighter weight, featuring a curve and durable design. [[Cross-country skiing|Cross country]] and [[freestyle skiing]] utilize much longer, straight poles, so as to make it easier for the skier to reach the ground while traversing the mountain. This is particularly important in the uphill portions of the courses featured in cross country skiing.<ref name="Historical_dictionary_of_Skiing" />

=== Goggles ===
The invention of the modern [[Goggles|ski goggle]] came in the 1960's with the creation of the double-lens ski goggle. Created by Bob Smith, an orthodontist from Sun Valley, Utah, these goggles allowed for air flow behind the lens in order to limit fogging and improve the skier's vision.<ref name="fry" /> Although uncommon, injuries to the user's eyes were still occurring due to the use of fragile materials in the lenses of many goggles. It wasn't until the [[ASTM International|ASTM]] passed regulations for the materials with which ski goggles could be made from that this issue was addressed. This specification stated that goggles "...required the lenses to be made either of tempered glass or one of the available lens plastics, [[CR-39]] or [[polycarbonate]]."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Skiing trauma and safety: seventh international symposium: the Seventh International Symposium on Ski Trauma and Skiing Safety was presented at Chamonix, France, on 11-15 May 1987 |date=1989 |publisher=ASTM |isbn=978-0-8031-1197-4 |editor-last=Johnson |editor-first=Robert J. |series=ASTM STP |location=Philadelphia, PA |editor-last2=American Society for Testing and Materials}}</ref> The strength of these materials was deemed to be shatter-resistant enough for use in ski goggles, though polycarbonate is the best choice of these three. Despite these findings and analysis, in 1984, shortly after the passing of these regulations, it was found that "the mix of lens materials was approximately 78% glass, 11% plastic, and 11% polycarbonate."<ref name=":2" />

Many modern iterations of ski goggles feature technology which allows the skier to quickly swap the type of lens in their goggles, without needing to bring multiple pairs along with them. The lens of these goggles is typically held in place using magnets or a switch system,<ref>{{Cite patent |number=CN206080839U |title=一种滑雪眼镜快速更换镜片的结构 |gdate=2017-04-12 |invent1=梁传庆 |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/CN206080839U/en?q=(replaceable+lens+ski+goggles)&oq=replaceable+lens+ski+goggles}}</ref> and the replacement of these lens can allow the user to swap the amount of tint through which they look to adapt to different lighting situations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=A. |last2=Dempsey |first2=P. |name-list-style=amp |date=2015-12-01 |title=Sports Tech:Self-adapting ski goggles |url=https://digital-library.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/et.2016.1227 |journal=Engineering & Technology |language=en |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=84–85 |doi=10.1049/et.2016.1227 |issn=1750-9637}}</ref>