Editing History of Romania (section)

== Early modern period ==
{{Main|Early Modern Romania|National awakening of Romania|Regulamentul Organic|Moldavian Revolution of 1848|Wallachian Revolution of 1848}}
{{See also|Early Modern Moldavia|Early Modern Transylvania|Early Modern Wallachia}}
===Ottoman Romania===
[[File:Stema Mihai Viteazul.jpg|thumb|right|Seal of Michael the Brave during the personal union of the two Romanian principalities with Transylvania]]

After the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526, [[Transylvania]] belonged to the [[Eastern Hungarian Kingdom]], from which the [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] emerged in 1570 by the [[Treaty of Speyer (1570)|Treaty of Speyer]].<ref>{{Citation |title=History of Transylvania: IV. The First Period of the Principality of Transylvania (1526–1606) |volume=1 |year=2001 |editor-last=Köpeczi |editor-first=Béla |url=http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/97.html |place=New York |publisher=Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences}}</ref>

By 1541, the entire [[Balkan peninsula]] and [[Ottoman Hungary|the southern and central parts of Hungary]] became Ottoman provinces. Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania came under Ottoman suzerainty but remained fully autonomous and until the 18th century, had some internal independence.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} However, regions of [[Banat]], [[Northern Dobruja|Dobrogea]] and [[Crișana]] along side cities of [[Giurgiu]], [[Turnu Fortress|Turnu]] and [[Braila]] were completely under Ottoman control. Unlike the autonomous Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania, many Muslims settled in those areas. During this period, the Romanian lands experienced a slow disappearance of the [[feudalism]] and the distinguishing of some rulers like [[Vasile Lupu]] and [[Dimitrie Cantemir]] in Moldavia, [[Matei Basarab]] and [[Constantin Brâncoveanu]] in Wallachia. At that time, the [[Russian Empire]] appeared to become the political and military power the threatened the Romanian principalities.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

[[John II Sigismund Zápolya|John II]], the non-Habsburg King of Hungary, moved his royal court to [[Alba Iulia]] in Transylvania and after his abdication from the Hungarian throne, he became the first [[Prince of Transylvania]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roșu|first=Felicia|date=2018-01-18|title=Elective Monarchy in Transylvania and Poland-Lithuania, 1569–1587|volume=1|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-878937-6 |url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198789376.001.0001/oso-9780198789376|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198789376.001.0001}}</ref> His 1568 Edict of [[Turda]] was the first decree of [[freedom of religion|religious freedom]] in the modern European history.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} In the aftermath, Transylvania was ruled by mostly [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] Hungarian princes until the end of the 17th century, and [[Protestantism]] flourished in the region.<ref>{{Cite book |editor=Gábor Almási |year=2014 |title=Study Tours and Intellectual-Religious Relationships |series=A Divided Hungary in Europe: Exchanges, Networks and Representations, 1541-1699 |volume=1 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-6686-6 |url=https://www.cambridgescholars.com/resources/pdfs/978-1-4438-6686-6-sample.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:Mihai Viteazul fighting the Turks, Giurgiu, October 1595.jpg|thumb|right|[[Battle of Giurgiu (1595)|Battle of Giurgiu]] which ended with the victory of the united forces of [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Transylvania]], [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] over the retreating [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] army]]
[[Michael the Brave]] was the [[Prince of Wallachia]] from 1593 to 1601, of Transylvania from 1599 to 1600, and of Moldavia in 1600. For a short time during his reign, Transylvania was ruled together with Moldavia and Wallachia in a [[personal union]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Rezachevici |first=Constantin |title=Mihai Viteazul: itinerariul moldovean |year=2000 |journal=Magazin Istoric |issue=5 |url=http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm |language=ro |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416234456/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm |archive-date=April 16, 2009 }}</ref> After his death the union dissolved and as vassal tributary states, Moldavia and Wallachia still had internal autonomy and some external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}
[[File:Moldavia,_Transylvania_and_Wallachia_under_Michael_the_Brave's_authority_(1600).png|thumb|right|alt=Wallachia in 1600|[[Wallachia|Principality of Wallachia]], [[Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia]], and [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] in personal union of [[Michael the Brave]] in 1600]]

[[File:Europe map 1648.PNG|thumb|left|Map of Europe in 1648 showing Transylvania and the two Romanian principalities: Wallachia and Moldavia]]
[[File:Principati1786.jpg|thumb|right|The Principalities of [[Moldavia]] and [[Wallachia]] in 1786, Italian map by G. Pittori, since the geographer Giovanni Antonio Rizzi Zannoni]]

The [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] reached its golden age under the [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutist]] rule of [[Gábor Bethlen]] from 1613 to 1629. In 1690, the [[Habsburg monarchy]] gained possession of [[Transylvania]] through the [[Holy Crown of Hungary|Hungarian crown]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Béla Köpeczi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VElpAAAAMAAJ&q=%22+in+1690%2C+the+Habsburgs+gained+possession+of+Transylvania+by+right+of+the+Hungarian+crown.%22 |title=History of Transylvania: From 1606 to 1830 |date=2008-07-09 | publisher=Social Science Monographs |isbn=978-0-88033-491-4 |access-date=2017-07-10}}</ref><ref>Peter F. Sugar. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LOln4TGdDHYC&dq=independent+principality+that+was+not+reunited+with+Hungary&pg=PA163 "Southeastern Europe Under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804"] (''History of East Central Europe''), University of Washington Press, July 1983, page 163</ref><ref name="books.google.com">Paul Lendvai, Ann Major. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9yCmAQGTW28C&dq=diploma+leopoldinum+transylvania&pg=PA146 ''The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat''] C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2003, page 146;</ref> After the failure [[Rákóczi's War of Independence]] in 1711<ref>[http://www.google.ro/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=%22princes+of+transylvania%22&btnG=#hl=en&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22+In+1711%2C+after+the+Peace+Treaty+of+Szatmar%2C+Austrian+control+was+firmly+established+over+all+of+Hungary+and+Erdely%2C+and+the+princes+of+Transylvania+were+replaced+by+Austrian+governors.+%22&oq=%22+In+1711%2C+after+the+Peace+Treaty+of+Szatmar%2C+Austrian+control+was+firmly+established+over+all+of+Hungary+and+Erdely%2C+and+the+princes+of+Transylvania+were+replaced+by+Austrian+governors.+%22&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_l=serp.3...21238l22034l2l22304l3l2l0l0l0l0l102l180l1j1l2l0.frgbld.&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=3cae50351d088142&biw=1137&bih=752 " In 1711, after the Peace Treaty of Szatmar, Austrian control was firmly established over all of Hungary and Erdely, and the princes of Transylvania were replaced by Austrian governors. " (Google Search)]{{cite book |last1=Glockner |first1=Peter G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAAMAQAAMAAJ&q=%22+In+1711,+after+the+Peace+Treaty+of+Szatmar,+Austrian+control+was+firmly+established+over+all+of+Hungary+and+Erdely,+and+the+princes+of+Transylvania+were+replaced+by+Austrian+governors.+%22 |title=Encyclopaedia Hungarica: English |last2=Bagossy |first2=Nora Varga |date=2007 |publisher=Hungarian Ethnic Lexicon Foundation |isbn=978-1-55383-178-5 |language=en}}</ref> Habsburg control of [[Transylvania]] was consolidated, and Hungarian [[List of princes of Transylvania|Transylvanian princes]] were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors.<ref name="Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/603323/Transylvania "Transylvania"] (2009). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved July 7, 2009</ref><ref name="Leopoldinum">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1459175/Diploma-Leopoldinum "Diploma Leopoldinum"] (2009). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved July 7, 2009</ref> In 1699, Transylvania became a part of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] following the Austrian victory over the Turks.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://brill.com/view/title/33550|title=Across the Danube: Southeastern Europeans and Their Travelling Identities (17th–19th C.)|date=2016-11-21|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-33544-8|language=en|doi=10.1163/9789004335448|editor1-last=Katsiardi-Hering|editor1-first=Olga|editor2-last=Stassinopoulou|editor2-first=Maria A}}</ref> The Habsburgs rapidly expanded their empire; in 1718 [[Oltenia]], a major part of Wallachia, was annexed to the Habsburg monarchy and was only returned in 1739. In 1775, the Habsburgs later occupied the north-western part of Moldavia, which was later called [[Bukovina]] and was incorporated to the [[Austrian Empire]] in 1804. The eastern half of the principality, which was called [[Bessarabia]], was occupied in 1812 by Russia.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Bessarabia |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |year=1920 |location=London, England |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref>

During the Austro-Hungarian rule of Transylvania, Romanians formed the majority of the population.<ref>{{Citation |last1 =Kocsis |first1 =Karoly |last2 =Kocsis-Hodosi |first2 =Eszter |year =1999 |title =Ethnic structure of the population on the present territory of Transylvania (1880–1992) |url =http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hmcb/Tab14.htm |url-status =dead |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080222171134/http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/hmcb/Tab14.htm |archive-date =2008-02-22 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1 =Kocsis|first1 =Karoly|last2 =Kocsis-Hodosi|first2 =Eszter|title =Ethnic Geography of the Hungarian Minorities in the Carpathian Basin|year =2001|pages =102|publisher =Simon Publications|isbn =1-931313-75-X|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=-zZ_NVM9mNEC&q=hungarian+census+transylvania+1910&pg=PA116}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

After their defeat to the Russians, the Ottoman Empire restored the Danube ports of [[Turnu]], [[Giurgiu]] and [[Braila]] to Wallachia, and agreed to give up their commercial monopoly and recognize freedom of navigation on the Danube as specified in the [[Treaty of Adrianople (1829)|Treaty of Adrianople]], which was signed in 1829.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} The political autonomy of the Romanian principalities grew as their rulers were elected for life by a Community Assembly consisting of [[boyar]]s, a method used to reduce political instability and Ottoman interventions.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} Following the war, Romanian lands came under Russian occupation under the governance of General [[Pavel Kiselyov]] until 1844. During his rule, the local boyars enacted the first [[Law of Romania|Romanian constitution]].{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

=== Revolutions of 1848 and formation of modern Romania ===
[[File:Peles-Castle-Sinaia-Romania.jpg|thumb|right|[[Peleș Castle]], retreat of Romanian monarchs]]

In 1848, there was a [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848|revolution]] in Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania perpetrated by [[Tudor Vladimirescu]] and his [[Vladimirescu's Pandurs|Pandurs]] in the [[Wallachian uprising of 1821]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chalcraft |first1=John |title=Popular Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East |date=22 March 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00750-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JhW8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|93}} The goals of the revolutionaries were full independence for Moldavia and Wallachia, and national emancipation in Transylvania; these were not fulfilled but were the basis of the subsequent revolutions.<ref>{{Cite web |type=paper |last=Ivan |first=Cristi |title=Romanian history the DACIA |url=https://www.academia.edu/18513665}}</ref> The revolution in 1848 already carried the seeds of the national dream of a unified and united Romania,<ref name="Ivan T. Berend">[[Iván T. Berend]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&q=History+Derailed%3A+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+in+the+Long+Nineteenth+Century History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long Nineteenth Century], University of California Press, 2013, p. 112 and p. 252</ref> though the "idea of unification" had been known from earlier works of Naum Ramniceanu (1802) and [[Ion Budai-Deleanu]] (1804).<ref name="Juliana Geran Pilon">Juliana Geran Pilon,[[iarchive:bloodyflagpostco00pilo/page/56|<!-- quote="Greater Romania" concept. --> The Bloody Flag: Post-Communist Nationalism in Eastern Europe : Spotlight on Romania]], Transaction Publishers, 1982, p. 56</ref>

=== United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia ===

After the unsuccessful 1848 revolution, the [[Great Powers]] rejected the Romanians' desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing the Romanians to proceed alone in their struggle against the Turks.<ref>{{Citation|last =Bobango|first =Gerald J|title =The emergence of the Romanian national State|publisher=Boulder |year=1979 |location=New York |isbn= 978-0-914710-51-6}}</ref>

The aftermath of the [[Russian Empire]]'s defeat in the [[Crimean War]] brought the 1856 [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|Treaty of Paris]], which started a period of common tutelage for the Ottomans and a Congress of [[Great Power]]s—the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], the [[Second French Empire]], the [[Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]], the [[Austrian Empire]], [[Prussia]], and, though never again fully, Russia. While the Moldavia-Wallachia [[Partida Națională|unionist campaign]], which had come to dominate political demands, was accepted with sympathy by the French, Russians, Prussians, and Sardinians, it was rejected by the Austrian Empire, and looked upon with suspicion by Great Britain and the Ottomans.

Negotiations amounted to an agreement on a minimal formal union, to be known as the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia but with separate institutions and thrones and with each principality electing its own prince. However, the Moldavian and Wallachian elections for the [[Ad hoc Divans|ad-hoc divans]] in 1859 profited from an ambiguity in the text of the final agreement, which, while specifying two separate thrones, did not prevent the same person from occupying both thrones simultaneously and ultimately ushered in the ruling of [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] as ''Domnitor'' (Ruling Prince) over both Moldavia and Wallachia from 1859 onwards, [[Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia|uniting both principalities]].<ref name="Principalities">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&pg=PA114 |title=The establishment of the Balkan national states, 1804–1920 |date= 20 September 2012|isbn=978-0-295-80360-9 |access-date=2012-03-28|last1=Jelavich |first1=Charles |last2=Jelavich |first2=Barbara |publisher=University of Washington Press }}</ref>

[[File:Battle at river Skit 1877.jpg|thumb|Clash between Romanians and Turks during the [[Romanian War of Independence]], November 1877]]
Alexander Ioan Cuza carried out reforms including abolishing serfdom and started to unite the institutions one by one in spite of the convention from Paris. With help from unionists, he unified the government and parliament, effectively merging Wallachia and Moldavia into one country and in 1862 the country's name was changed to United Principalities of Romania.

Romania was created as a personal union that did not include Transylvania, where the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian, although Romanian nationalism clashed with Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Identity conflict of the sango minority of Romania |url=https://munin.uit.no/bitstream/handle/10037/20109/thesis.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y}}</ref> Austria-Hungary, especially under the [[History of Hungary|Dual Monarchy]] of 1867, kept the territory firmly in control even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a vast majority.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}