Editing Historiography (section)

===Middle Ages to Renaissance===

====Christendom====
{{See also|Historiography in the Middle Ages|Medieval ecclesiastic historiography|Ethiopian historiography}}
[[File:Beda Petersburgiensis f3v.jpg|right|upright|thumb|A page of [[Bede]]'s ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'']]

[[Medieval ecclesiastic historiography|Christian historical writing]] arguably begins with the narrative sections of the New Testament, particularly [[Luke-Acts]], which is the [[primary source]] for the [[Apostolic Age]], though its [[Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles|historical reliability is disputed]]. The first tentative beginnings of a specifically Christian historiography can be seen in [[Clement of Alexandria]] in the second century.<ref>{{emc1|Josef Lössl|Early Christian historical writing|553-563}}</ref>
The [[Early centers of Christianity|growth of Christianity]] and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after [[Constantine I and Christianity|Constantine&nbsp;I]] (see [[State church of the Roman Empire]]) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both [[Christian theology]] and the nature of the [[Christian Bible]], encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' of [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] around 324 and in the subjects it covers.<ref name="Concordia-2007">[http://www.cuw.edu/Academics/programs/history/historiography.html ''Historiography''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018032745/http://www.cuw.edu/Academics/programs/history/historiography.html |date=2007-10-18 }}, Concordia University Wisconsin, retrieved on 2 November 2007</ref> Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work.<ref>Warren, John (1998). ''The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography'', Hodder & Stoughton, {{ISBN|0-340-67934-4}}, pp. 67–68.</ref>

Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the [[Middle Ages]]. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the [[early medieval|Early Middle Ages]] historical writing often took the form of [[annals]] or [[chronicle]]s recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes.<ref>Warren, John (1998). ''The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography'', Hodder & Stoughton, {{ISBN|0-340-67934-4}}, pp. 78–79.</ref> An example of this type of writing is the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', which was the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of [[Alfred the Great]] in the late 9th&nbsp;century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more [[narrative]] form of history. These included [[Gregory of Tours]] and more successfully [[Bede]], who wrote both [[secular]] and [[ecclesiastical]] history and who is known for writing the ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]''.<ref name="Concordia-2007"/>

Outside of Europe and West Asia, Christian historiography also existed in Africa. For instance, [[Augustine of Hippo]], the [[Berbers|Berber]] theologian and bishop of [[Hippo Regius]] in [[Numidia (Roman province)|Numidia]] ([[Roman North Africa]]), wrote a multiple volume autobiography called ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]'' between 397 and 400 AD.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chadwick|first1=Henry|title=St. Augustine, Confessions| orig-year =1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19953782-2|page=xxix| year =2008}}</ref> While earlier pagan rulers of the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] produced autobiographical style [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] texts in locations spanning [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]], and [[Sudan]] and in either Greek or the native [[Ge'ez script]],<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|pages=14–15|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref> the 4th century AD [[Ezana Stone]] commemorating [[Ezana of Axum]]'s conquest of the [[Kingdom of Kush]] in [[Nubia]] also emphasized his [[conversion to Christianity]] (the first indigenous African head of state to do so).<ref>{{cite book|last=Robin|first=Christian Julien|title=The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|chapter=Arabia and Ethiopia|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-533693-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEYSDAAAQBAJ|editor-last=Johnson|editor-first=Scott Fitzgerald|page=276|translator=Arietta Papaconstantinou}}</ref> Aksumite manuscripts from the 5th to 7th centuries AD chronicling the [[diocese]]s and [[episcopal sees]] of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] demonstrate not only an adherence to Christian chronology but also influences from the non-Christian Kingdom of Kush, the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] of [[Hellenistic Egypt]], and the [[Yemenite Jews]] of the [[Himyarite Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|pages=15–16|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref> The tradition of [[Ethiopian historiography]] evolved into a matured form during the [[Solomonic dynasty]]. Though works such as the 13th century ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'' blended [[Christian mythology]] with historical events in its narrative, the first proper biographical chronicle on an [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] was made for [[Amda Seyon I]] (r. 1314–1344), depicted as a Christian savior of his nation in conflicts with the Islamic [[Ifat Sultanate]].<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|pages=17–18|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref> The 16th century monk [[Bahrey]] was the first in Ethiopia to produce a historical [[ethnography]], focusing on the migrating [[Oromo people]] who came into military conflict with the Ethiopian Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|page=20|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref> While royal biographies existed for individual Ethiopian emperors authored by court historians who were also clerical scholars within the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]], the reigns of [[Iyasu II]] (r. 1730–1755) and [[Iyoas I]] (r. 1755–1769) were the first to be included in larger general dynastic histories.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|pages=20–22|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref>

During the [[Renaissance]], history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Romanticism]]. [[Voltaire]] described the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called ''philosophia historiae'' anymore, but merely history (''historia'').

[[File:Ibn khaldun writting-ms.jpg|thumb|upright|Autograph writing of [[Ibn Khaldun]], pioneer of historiography, [[cultural history]], and the [[philosophy of history]]]]

====Islamic world====
{{See also|Historiography of early Islam|Muqaddimah|Muslim historians}}

[[Muslim]] historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet [[Muhammad]]'s life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his [[Sahaba|companions]] from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the "[[Ilm ar-Rijal|science of biography]]", "[[science of hadith]]" and "[[Isnad]]" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]]. Famous historians in this tradition include [[Urwah ibn Zubayr|Urwah]] (d.&nbsp;712), [[Wahb ibn Munabbih]] (d.&nbsp;728), [[Ibn Ishaq]] (d.&nbsp;761), [[al-Waqidi]] (745–822), [[Ibn Hisham]] (d.&nbsp;834), [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]] (810–870) and [[Ibn Hajar Asqalani|Ibn Hajar]] (1372–1449).<ref>Chase F. Robinson, ''Islamic historiography'' (Cambridge University Press, 2003)</ref> Historians of the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] also developed an interest in world history.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=M. S. |year=1976 |title=al-Biruni and the Political History of India |journal=Oriens |volume=25 |pages=86–115 |doi=10.2307/1580658 |jstor=1580658 }}</ref> Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the Arab Muslim historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406), who published his historiographical studies in the ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (translated as ''Prolegomena'') and ''Kitab al-I'bar'' (''Book of Advice'').<ref>Khalidi, Tarif. Arabic historical thought in the classical period. Cambridge Univ Pr, 1996. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511583650</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Spread of Ibn Khaldun's Ideas on Climate and Culture|author=Warren E. Gates|journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]]|volume=28|issue=3|date=July–September 1967|pages=415–422|jstor=2708627|doi=10.2307/2708627}}</ref> His work was forgotten until it was rediscovered in the late 19th century.<ref>Charles Issawi, ''An Arab Philosophy of History: Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of Tunis'' (1987). {{ISBN|978-0878500567}}</ref>

====Jewish====
{{main|modern Jewish historiography}}
Jewish historiography built on biblical and medieval historiography with significant periods in the 16th and 19th centuries, building on works such as the chains of tradition of the oral law, Christian and Hellenistic historiography, and the [[Josippon]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bowman |first=Steven |date=1995 |title='Yosippon' and Jewish Nationalism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4618850 |journal=Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume=61 |pages=23–51 |jstor=4618850 |issn=0065-6798}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jelinčič Boeta |first=Klemen |date=2023 |title=Jewish Historiography |url=https://www.teof.uni-lj.si/uploads/File/Edinost/78/01/Jelincic.pdf |journal=Edinost in Dialog |language=sl |volume=78 |issue=1 |doi=10.34291/Edinost/78/01/Jelincic |issn=2385-8907}}</ref>

====East Asia====
=====Japan=====
{{main|Historiography of Japan}}
{{further|Japanese literature}}
The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the ''[[Rikkokushi]]'' (Six National Histories), a corpus of six national histories covering the history of Japan from its mythological beginnings until the 9th century. The first of these works were the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'', compiled by [[Prince Toneri]] in 720.

=====Korea=====
{{main|Historiography of Korea}}
{{further|Korean literature}}
The tradition of Korean historiography was established with the ''[[Samguk sagi]]'', a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by [[Goryeo]] court historian [[Kim Pusik]] after its commission by King [[Injong of Goryeo]] (r. 1122–1146). It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, but also on the ''[[Hwarang Segi]]'' written by the [[Silla]] historian [[Kim Taemun]] in the 8th century. The latter work is now lost.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ki-Moon Lee|author2=S. Robert Ramsey|title=A History of the Korean Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AmspKX3beoC&pg=PA37|year=2011|page=37|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1139494489}}</ref>

=====China=====
The ''[[Shitong]]'', published around 710 by the Tang Chinese historian [[Liu Zhiji]] (661–721), was the first work to provide an outline of the entire tradition of Chinese historiography up to that point, and the first comprehensive work on [[historical criticism]], arguing that historians should be skeptical of primary sources, rely on systematically gathered evidence, and should not treat previous scholars with undue deference.<ref name="Vann-2023"/> In 1084 the [[Song dynasty]] official [[Sima Guang]] completed the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'' (Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), which laid out the entire history of China from the beginning of the [[Warring States period]] (403 BC) to the end of the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|Five Dynasties period]] (959) in chronological annals form, rather than in the traditional annals-biography form. This work is considered much more accessible than the "Official Histories" for the [[Six dynasties]], [[Tang dynasty]], and [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|Five Dynasties]], and in practice superseded those works in the mind of the general reader.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson, Endymion |title=Chinese History: A New Manual |publisher=Self-published |year=2017 |isbn=978-0998888309 |edition=5th |pages=681–684}}</ref>

The great Song Neo-Confucian [[Zhu Xi]] found the Mirror to be overly long for the average reader, as well as too morally nihilist, and therefore prepared a didactic summary of it called the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu]]'' (Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), posthumously published in 1219. It reduced the original's 249 chapters to just 59, and for the rest of imperial Chinese history would be the first history book most people ever read.<ref>Wilkinson (2018) p. 685</ref>

====South East Asia====
=====Philippines=====
{{main|Historiography of the Philippines}}
[[File:Laguna Copperplate Inscription.gif|thumb|Laguna copperplate inscription]]

[[Historiography of the Philippines]] refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to study the history of the [[Philippines]]. It includes historical and archival research and writing on the history of the Philippine archipelago including the islands of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Foronda |first1=Marcelino A. |title=Some Notes on Philippine Historiography |date=1972 |publisher=United Publishing Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6AeAAAAMAAJ |access-date=1 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="sebastian">{{cite journal |last1=Sebastian |first1=Raul Roland R. |title=Philippine Historiography: Issues and Trends |journal=Social Sciences and Development Review |pages=15–38 |url=https://apps.pup.edu.ph/ojs/data/issue/attachment/c5e6c7bdf4ae4fd7a263f5c45847d64468a1b170.pdf |access-date=1 October 2019 |archive-date=1 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001145437/https://apps.pup.edu.ph/ojs/data/issue/attachment/c5e6c7bdf4ae4fd7a263f5c45847d64468a1b170.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Philippine archipelago was part of many empires before the Spanish Empire arrived in the 16th century.

Southeast Asia is classified as part of the [[Indosphere]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sagar |first1=Krishna Chandra |title=An Era of Peace |date=2002 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172111212 |pages=39–51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zq6KlY1MnE8C&q=indosphere+philippines |access-date=2 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cœdès |first1=George |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |date=1968 |publisher=Australian National University Press |isbn=978-0824800710 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ziGtQAACAAJ&q=indosphere+philippines |access-date=2 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Sinosphere]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lynn |first1=Pan |title=Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora |publisher=Kodansha International |isbn=978-1568360324 |pages=418 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbXNwAEACAAJ |access-date=2 October 2019|year=1994 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fogel |first1=Joshua A. |title=Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time |date=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674053823 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lWUtJap6EOIC |access-date=2 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The archipelago had direct contact with [[China]] during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wickberg |first1=Edgar |title=The Chinese in Philippine Life, 1850–1898 |date=2000 |publisher=Ateneo University Press |isbn=978-9715503525 |url=https://archive.org/details/chineseinphilipp0000wick |url-access=registration |access-date=2 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref> and was a part of the [[Srivijaya]] and [[Majapahit]] empires.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Francisco |first1=Juan R. |title=Indian Influences in the Philippines: With Special Reference to Language and Literature |date=1964 |publisher=University of the Philippines |pages=310 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j8NwwaroZn4C |access-date=2 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

The pre-colonial Philippines widely used the [[abugida]] system in writing and seals on documents, though it was for communication and no recorded writings of early literature or history.{{clarify|date=October 2020}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodríguez |first1=Rebeca Ferndández |title=Early writing and printing in the Philippines |journal=History and Philosophy of the Language Sciences |date=9 July 2013 |url=https://hiphilangsci.net/2013/07/10/early-writing-and-printing-in-the-philippines/ |access-date=2 October 2019 |language=en |archive-date=10 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810003537/https://hiphilangsci.net/2013/07/10/early-writing-and-printing-in-the-philippines/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ancient Filipinos usually wrote documents on bamboo, bark, and leaves, which did not survive, unlike inscriptions on clay, metal, and ivory did, such as the [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]] and [[Butuan Ivory Seal]]. The discovery of the [[Butuan Ivory Seal]] also proves the use of paper documents in ancient Philippines.

After the Spanish conquest, pre-colonial Filipino manuscripts and documents were gathered and burned to eliminate pagan beliefs. This has been the burden of historians in the accumulation of data and the development of theories that gave historians many aspects of Philippine history that were left unexplained.<ref name="sebastian"/> The interplay of pre-colonial events and the use of secondary sources written by historians to evaluate the primary sources, do not provide a critical examination of the methodology of the early Philippine historical study.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=William Henry |title=Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society |date=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC&q=henry+otley+beyer+theory+philippines&pg=PA10 |access-date=2 October 2019 |publisher=Ateneo University Press |language=en|isbn=978-9715501354 }}</ref>