Editing Gardening (section)

== Plant Propagation ==
Plants may be [[Plant propagation|propagated]] through many different methods. These methods are classified as either sexual or asexual propagation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allard |first=Robert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74hdQoEc8XsC&dq=plant+breeding&pg=PA1 |title=Principles of Plant Breeding |date=1999-05-10 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-02309-8 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Asexual reproduction ===
[[Asexual reproduction]] occurs when plants produce [[Cloning|clonal offspring]]. This method of reproduction is often more simplistic and provides rapid population growth. Cloning may result in highly vulnerable plant populations if they do not also reproduce sexually in order to create genetic diversity, thus allowing for certain levels of [[natural selection]] and [[Heterosis|hybrid vigor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=13. Propagation {{!}} NC State Extension Publications |url=https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/extension-gardener-handbook/13-propagation |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=content.ces.ncsu.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> There are various methods of asexual plant propagation taken advantage of by gardeners. These include [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetative propagation]], which involves the growth of new plants from vegetative parts of the parent plant, such as roots, stems, and leaves.<ref>{{Citation |last=Pierik |first=R. L. M. |title=Vegetative propagation |date=1997 |work=In Vitro Culture of Higher Plants |pages=183–230 |editor-last=Pierik |editor-first=R. L. M. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-5750-6_19 |access-date=2024-03-22 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-5750-6_19 |doi-broken-date=2 November 2024 |isbn=978-94-011-5750-6}}</ref> Certain plants such as strawberries and raspberries produce [[stolon]]s or [[rhizome]]s which are stems which grow horizontally above or below ground, developing new plants at nodes. Another common method of asexual reproduction in garden plants is [[Fragmentation (reproduction)|fragmentation]] which involves a separation from the parent plant.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ceccherelli |first1=Giulia |last2=Cinelli |first2=Francesco |date=1999-06-11 |title=The role of vegetative fragmentation in dispersal of the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia in the Mediterranean |url=https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v182/p299-303/ |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |language=en |volume=182 |pages=299–303 |doi=10.3354/meps182299 |bibcode=1999MEPS..182..299C |issn=0171-8630}}</ref> This is common for shrubs, and trees such as willows which may shed their branches which is termed [[cladoptosis]]. Placing the shed limb into water or soil produces [[budding]] and causes roots to form.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sAzxAAAAMAAJ&dq=vegetative+propagation+of+willow&pg=PA129 |title=General Technical Report SRS |date=1999 |publisher=The Station |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Corm_stolons5680.jpg|thumb|[[Stolon]]s growing from nodes from a [[corm]] of ''[[Crocosmia]]'']]
Perhaps the most commonly known method of asexual reproduction in gardening and farming is [[grafting]]. A human may choose to graft an excellent fruit-producing cultivar on a selected [[rootstock]] cultivar of the same species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jung-Myung |last2=Kubota |first2=C. |last3=Tsao |first3=S. J. |last4=Bie |first4=Z. |last5=Echevarria |first5=P. Hoyos |last6=Morra |first6=L. |last7=Oda |first7=M. |date=2010-12-08 |title=Current status of vegetable grafting: Diffusion, grafting techniques, automation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304423810003699 |journal=Scientia Horticulturae |series=Special Issue on Vegetable Grafting |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=93–105 |doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2010.08.003 |bibcode=2010ScHor.127...93L |issn=0304-4238}}</ref> This involves cutting each plant and connecting the cuttings by mechanical means until they [[Inosculation|inosculate]] or fuse together. Grafting is done for many purposes. Firstly, the scion (portion of the plant above the graft site) can undergo artificial selection for specific desirable traits such as flavor while the rootstock can undergo selection for traits such as disease resistance or cold tolerance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goldschmidt |first=Eliezer E. |date=2014 |title=Plant grafting: new mechanisms, evolutionary implications |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=5 |page=727 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2014.00727 |doi-access=free |pmid=25566298 |pmc=4269114 |issn=1664-462X}}</ref> This effectively allows for much more efficiency in the artificial selection process as certain traits such as fruit taste can be ignored altogether in the rootstock allowing for a focused selection with less [[backcrossing]] to a plant that had good tasting fruit. Secondly, grafting allows for plants that require cross-pollination for fruit generation, such as apples, to all grow together as one tree.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=W. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UXixYFl5O4C&q=plant+multi+grafting&pg=PP6 |title=Grafting and Budding: A Practical Guide for Fruit and Nut Plants and Ornamentals |last2=Alexander |first2=DMcE |date=2008-08-11 |publisher=Landlinks Press |isbn=978-0-643-09899-2 |language=en}}</ref> Thirdly, this allows for quick reproduction where one [[mother plant]] can produce many semi-developed clones each year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Angela R. |last2=Perkins-Veazie |first2=Penelope |last3=Hassell |first3=Richard |last4=Levi |first4=Amnon |last5=King |first5=Stephen R. |last6=Zhang |first6=Xingping |date=2008-10-01 |title=Grafting Effects on Vegetable Quality |url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/43/6/article-p1670.xml |journal=HortScience |language=en-US |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=1670–1672 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.43.6.1670 |issn=0018-5345|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Angela R. |last2=Perkins-Veazie |first2=Penelope |last3=Sakata |first3=Yoshiteru |last4=López-Galarza |first4=Salvador |last5=Maroto |first5=Jose Vicente |last6=Lee |first6=Sang-Gyu |last7=Huh |first7=Yun-Chan |last8=Sun |first8=Zhanyong |last9=Miguel |first9=Alfredo |last10=King |first10=Stephen R. |last11=Cohen |first11=Roni |last12=Lee |first12=Jung-Myung |date=2008-05-20 |title=Cucurbit Grafting |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07352680802053940 |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=50–74 |doi=10.1080/07352680802053940 |bibcode=2008CRvPS..27...50D |issn=0735-2689}}</ref>

=== Sexual reproduction ===
[[Sexual reproduction]] occurs through the [[pollination]] of an [[ovule]]. This pollination must occur between the female and male parts of a single flower or between flowers. A plant may undergo [[Self-pollination|self pollination]] as a sexual means of reproduction, where the genes of the mother plant will not perfectly match those of the progeny. Progeny from self-pollination will, however, have less genetic diversity which may result in [[inbreeding depression]] versus plants from [[cross-pollination]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Charlesworth |first1=Deborah |last2=Willis |first2=John H. |date=November 2009 |title=The genetics of inbreeding depression |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg2664 |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=783–796 |doi=10.1038/nrg2664 |pmid=19834483 |issn=1471-0064}}</ref> Pollen is typically carried by wind, insects, or animals to complete pollination. Some greenhouses may have to manually pollinate their plants to produce fruit and seeds due to a lack of these conditions. Sexual reproduction can only be done by members of the same [[species]] and this produces varying levels of [[genetic diversity]] in the plants' offspring. This genetic diversity is responsible for the survival of every plant as we know it today.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Booy |first1=G. |last2=Hendriks |first2=R. J. J. |last3=Smulders |first3=M. J. M. |last4=Groenendael |first4=J. M. Van |last5=Vosman |first5=B. |date=July 2000 |title=Genetic Diversity and the Survival of Populations |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-2000-5958 |journal=Plant Biology |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=379–395 |doi=10.1055/s-2000-5958 |bibcode=2000PlBio...2..379B |issn=1435-8603}}</ref> The diversity allows for disease resistance, adaptations to changing climate, changes in soil, changes in pollination methods, changes in animal grazing pressure, changes in weed pressure, and any other variations that arise in their growing conditions. [[Plant breeding|Crossing plants]], or hybridizing, results in hybrid vigor and increases the genetic diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Birchler |first1=James A. |last2=Yao |first2=Hong |last3=Chudalayandi |first3=Sivanandan |date=2006-08-29 |title=Unraveling the genetic basis of hybrid vigor |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=103 |issue=35 |pages=12957–12958 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0605627103 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1559732 |pmid=16938847|bibcode=2006PNAS..10312957B }}</ref>
[[File:Time_course_imaging_of_two_maize_inbreds_LH198_and_PHG47_and_their_F1_hybrid.gif|thumb|270x270px|Time course imaging of two maize inbreds (LH198 and PHG47) and the F1 hybrid (LH198/PHG47) generated by crossing the two together.]]
Many commercially grown plants are [[F1 hybrid]]s, which ensures certain desirable traits. A common alternative to growing hybrid plants is to grow [[Heirloom plant|heirloom]] or [[Open pollination|open-pollinated plants]], which, unlike F1 hybrids, will produce viable seed with progeny similar to its parent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heirloom plant {{!}} Definition, Examples, Importance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/heirloom-plant |access-date=2024-03-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Many modern gardeners will save seeds from heirloom varieties but not hybrids due to the certainty of desirable traits heirloom seeds provide. Historically, a lack of plant breeding knowledge would have led to more hybridization and the creation of new genetically diverse [[landrace]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barnaud |first1=A. |last2=Trigueros |first2=G. |last3=McKey |first3=D. |last4=Joly |first4=H. I. |date=November 2008 |title=High outcrossing rates in fields with mixed sorghum landraces: how are landraces maintained? |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy200877 |journal=Heredity |language=en |volume=101 |issue=5 |pages=445–452 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2008.77 |pmid=18685567 |bibcode=2008Hered.101..445B |issn=1365-2540}}</ref> Each plant varies in its likelihood of [[outcrossing]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritland |first1=Kermit |last2=Jain |first2=Subodh |date=August 1981 |title=A model for the estimation of outcrossing rate and gene frequencies using n independent loci |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy198157 |journal=Heredity |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=35–52 |doi=10.1038/hdy.1981.57 |bibcode=1981Hered..47...35R |issn=1365-2540}}</ref> Highly outcrossing plants such as spinach are more likely to create landraces.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jain |first=S. K. |date=January 1979 |title=Estimation of Outcrossing Rates: Some Alternative Procedures 1 |url=https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2135/cropsci1979.0011183X001900010006x |journal=Crop Science |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1979.0011183X001900010006x |issn=0011-183X}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Shigeta |first=Masayoshi |title=Creating Landrace Diversity: The Case of the Ari People and Ensete (Ensete ventricosum) in Ethiopia |date=1996 |work=Redefining Nature |pages=233–268 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003135746-11/creating-landrace-diversity-case-ari-people-ensete-ensete-ventricosum-ethiopia-masayoshi-shigeta |access-date=2024-03-22 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781003135746-11 |isbn=978-1-003-13574-6}}</ref> Many landraces and heirloom varieties along with their genetics are being lost due to the decrease in seed saving by modern farmers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hawkes |first1=J. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7gL1CAAAQBAJ&dq=loss+of+plant+genetics&pg=PR11 |title=The Ex Situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources |last2=Maxted |first2=Nigel |last3=Ford-Lloyd |first3=B. V. |date=2012-12-06 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-94-011-4136-9 |language=en}}</ref> This leads plant [[geneticist]]s to search for desirable genetics in wild ancestral varieties of commonly grown plants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Mohd. Kamran |last2=Islam |first2=Tofazzal |last3=Gezgin |first3=Sait |last4=Di Gioia |first4=Francesco |date=2023 |title=Editorial: Wild plant genetic resources: a hope for tomorrow |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=14 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2023.1217547 |doi-access=free |pmid=37324690 |pmc=10264807 |issn=1664-462X}}</ref> Plants have been [[Selective breeding|artificially selected]] and bred since at least 7800 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SITNFlash |date=2015-08-09 |title=From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology |url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/from-corgis-to-corn-a-brief-look-at-the-long-history-of-gmo-technology/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=Science in the News |language=en-US}}</ref> Despite the decrease in farmer seed saving, many landraces are also being created through artificial selection and [[Genetic engineering|genetic modification]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=SITNFlash |date=2015-08-09 |title=From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology |url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/from-corgis-to-corn-a-brief-look-at-the-long-history-of-gmo-technology/ |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=Science in the News |language=en-US}}</ref> Gardeners remain vital in the preservation of diverse genetics whether they maintain a family heirloom variety bred to fit conditions from the distant past, or they breed new landraces with traits matching their modern climate and growing condition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nazarea |first=Virginia Dimasuay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3IxSgc4cOsC&dq=the+role+of+gardeners+in+preserving+genetics&pg=PR9 |title=Heirloom Seeds and Their Keepers: Marginality and Memory in the Conservation of Biological Diversity |date=May 2005 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-2435-8 |language=en}}</ref>

Certain seeds may not sprout without certain environmental conditions. These seeds either require [[Scarification (botany)|scarification]] or [[Stratification (seeds)|stratification]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Valtueña |first1=F. J. |last2=Ortega-Olivencia |first2=A. |last3=Rodríguez-Riaño |first3=T. |date=2008-10-01 |title=Germination and seed bank biology in some Iberian populations of Anagyris foetida L. (Leguminosae) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00606-008-0067-2 |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |language=en |volume=275 |issue=3 |pages=231–243 |doi=10.1007/s00606-008-0067-2 |bibcode=2008PSyEv.275..231V |issn=1615-6110}}</ref> Gardeners may grow frustrated if they lack this crucial knowledge before attempting to propagate certain plants such as [[Garlic|hard neck garlic]] (asexual reproduction), which requires a cold dormant period to sprout, or [[Amelanchier alnifolia|saskatoon berries]] which have improved germination after being digested by bears through a process called [[Seed dispersal|endozoochory]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nowak |first1=Josh |last2=Crone |first2=Elizabeth E. |date=2012 |title=It is Good to be Eaten by a Bear: Effects of Ingestion on Seed Germination |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41412532 |journal=The American Midland Naturalist |volume=167 |issue=1 |pages=205–209 |doi=10.1674/0003-0031-167.1.205 |jstor=41412532 |issn=0003-0031}}</ref>

=== Transplanting ===
[[File:Cashew_grafted_seedlings.jpg|thumb|Cashew (''Anacardium occidentale'') grafted seedlings ready for transplanting at the Agroplan Mudas nursery, in Pacajus, Ceará, Brazil.]]
Many gardeners, especially those who live in colder climates, will start seeds indoors prior to transplanting the young plants outside.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ashworth |first=Suzanne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wb-KAgAAQBAJ&dq=seed+starting&pg=PA13 |title=Seed to Seed: Seed Saving and Growing Techniques for Vegetable Gardeners |date=2002 |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing |isbn=978-1-882424-58-0 |language=en}}</ref> This provides many benefits such as elongating the growing season, ensuring adequate quantities and quality of light, ensuring seedlings have adequate nutrients in the seed starting mix, ensuring seeds stay at correct humidity, heat, and moisture level for germination, and saving space in the garden.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bubel |first1=Nancy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vp9GDwAAQBAJ&dq=indoor+seed+starting&pg=PP1 |title=The New Seed-Starters Handbook |last2=Nick |first2=Jean |date=2018-01-30 |publisher=Rodale |isbn=978-1-63565-104-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Thomas S. C. |last2=Bedford |first2=K. E. |last3=Sholberg |first3=P. L. |date=2000-01-01 |title=Improved Germination of American Ginseng Seeds Under Controlled Environments |url=https://journals.ashs.org/horttech/view/journals/horttech/10/1/article-p131.xml |journal=HortTechnology |language=en-US |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=131–135 |doi=10.21273/HORTTECH.10.1.131 |issn=1943-7714}}</ref> Many crops will not be harvestable unless they are started inside so if a gardener wants to plant these crops in their garden without starting the plants themselves, they will need to purchase transplants which are commonly available at [[Garden centre|garden centers]], [[Plant nursery|plant nurseries]], and [[big-box store]]s. It is crucial that transplanting is done correctly. This generally implies providing the plants with enough soil so they do not become root-bound (roots wrapping in circles around transplant container), providing a hardening-off period (slow exposure to sun, wind, and cold), providing sufficient light, water, and nutrients, and choosing the correct plants to start indoors as some plants do not do well with the transplanting process.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Wei |last2=Tian |first2=Shijie |last3=Wang |first3=Qingyu |last4=Jiang |first4=Huanyu |date=August 2023 |title=Key Technologies of Plug Tray Seedling Transplanters in Protected Agriculture: A Review |journal=Agriculture |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1488 |doi=10.3390/agriculture13081488 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Agric..13.1488L |issn=2077-0472}}</ref>

There are varying methods of starting your seeds. The most prevalent method would be to start seeds in transplant (plug) trays or in planters/pots. Another method is starting seeds in soil blocks (small cubes of compressed [[potting soil]], [[compost]], and/or other seed-starting media), which may reduce transplant shock and stop root-binding because they allow air pruning of the roots.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dihingia |first1=Pramod Chandra |last2=Kumar |first2=G.V. Prasanna |last3=Sarma |first3=Pallab Kumar |last4=Neog |first4=Prasanta |date=2017-09-03 |title=Production of Soil Block Seedlings in Plug Trays for Mechanical Transplanting |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19315260.2017.1319889 |journal=International Journal of Vegetable Science |language=en |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=471–485 |doi=10.1080/19315260.2017.1319889 |issn=1931-5260}}</ref> Some plants such as onions and various herbs may be efficiently started by scattering their seeds on top of soil in a large tray where the seedlings will later be teased apart from each other and replanted in the garden or pots.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aboukhadrah |first1=S. H. |last2=El - Alsayed |first2=Abdul Wahed Abdul Hameed |last3=Sobhy |first3=Labib |last4=Abdelmasieh |first4=William |date=2017-08-01 |title=Response of Onion Yield and Quality To Different Planting Date, Methods and Density |url=https://agro.journals.ekb.eg/article_3712.html |journal=Egyptian Journal of Agronomy |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=203–219 |doi=10.21608/agro.2017.1203.1065 |issn=0379-3575}}</ref>