Editing Forensic science (section)

===Fingerprints===
Sir [[Sir William Herschel, 2nd Baronet|William Herschel]] was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the identification of criminal suspects. While working for the [[Indian Civil Service (British India)|Indian Civil Service]], he began to use thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of signatures in 1858.<ref name="Herschel1916">{{Cite book|first=William J|last=Herschel|title=The Origin of Finger-Printing|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1916|isbn=978-1104662257|url=http://galton.org/fingerprints/books/herschel/herschel-1916-origins-1up.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725022215/http://galton.org/fingerprints/books/herschel/herschel-1916-origins-1up.pdf|archive-date=25 July 2011|access-date=15 January 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Fingerprints taken by William James Herschel 1859-1860.jpg|thumb|left|Fingerprints taken by [[William Herschel]] 1859/60]]
In 1877 at Hooghly (near Kolkata), Herschel instituted the use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds, and he registered government pensioners' fingerprints to prevent the collection of money by relatives after a pensioner's death.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=William James|last=Herschel|title=Skin furrows of the hand|journal=Nature|volume=23|issue=578|page=76|date=25 November 1880|bibcode=1880Natur..23...76H|doi=10.1038/023076b0|s2cid=4068612|url=http://galton.org/fingerprints/herschel-1880-nature-furrows.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615200727/http://galton.org/fingerprints/herschel-1880-nature-furrows.pdf|archive-date=15 June 2011|access-date=15 January 2014}}</ref>

In 1880, [[Henry Faulds]], a Scottish surgeon in a [[Tokyo]] hospital, published his first paper on the subject in the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for identification and proposing a method to record them with printing ink. He established their first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on a vial.<ref name=faulds1>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.galton.org/fingerprints/faulds-1880-nature-furrows.pdf|last=Faulds|first=Henry|title=On the skin-furrows of the hand|journal=Nature|volume=22|issue=574|page=605|date=28 October 1880|doi=10.1038/022605a0|bibcode=1880Natur..22..605F|s2cid=4117214|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912031154/http://www.galton.org/fingerprints/faulds-1880-nature-furrows.pdf|archive-date=12 September 2008|access-date=15 January 2014}}</ref> Returning to the UK in 1886, he offered the concept to the [[Metropolitan Police]] in London, but it was dismissed at that time.<ref name=reid1>{{Cite journal|last=Reid|first=Donald L.|year=2003|title=Dr. Henry Faulds – Beith Commemorative Society|journal=Journal of Forensic Identification|volume=53|issue=2}} See also this on-line article on Henry Faulds: {{cite web|url=http://www.galton.org/fingerprints/faulds.htm#herschel1880|title=Henry Faulds: the Invention of a Fingerprinter|first=Gavan|last=Tredoux|date=December 2003|publisher=galton.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602152655/http://galton.org/fingerprints/faulds.htm#herschel1880|archive-date=2 June 2013|access-date=15 January 2014}}</ref>

Faulds wrote to [[Charles Darwin]] with a description of his method, but, too old and ill to work on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, [[Francis Galton]], who was interested in anthropology. Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book ''Finger Prints''. He had calculated that the chance of a "false positive" (two different individuals having the same fingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion.<ref name=galtonfps>{{cite web|url=http://www.clpex.com/Information/Pioneers/galton-1892-fingerprints-lowres.pdf|last=Galton|first=Francis|year=1892|title=Finger Prints|location=London|publisher=MacMillan and Co|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012152917/http://www.clpex.com/Information/Pioneers/galton-1892-fingerprints-lowres.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2006}}</ref>

[[File:Fingerprinting 1928.jpg|thumb|Women clerical employees of the [[Los Angeles Police Department|LA Police Department]] getting [[fingerprint]]ed and photographed in 1928]]
[[Juan Vucetich]], an Argentine chief police officer, created the first method of recording the fingerprints of individuals on file. In 1892, after studying Galton's pattern types, Vucetich set up the world's first fingerprint bureau. In that same year, Francisca Rojas of [[Necochea]] was found in a house with neck injuries whilst her two sons were found dead with their throats cut. Rojas accused a neighbour, but despite brutal interrogation, this neighbour would not confess to the crimes. Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, went to the scene and found a bloody thumb mark on a door. When it was compared with Rojas' prints, it was found to be identical with her right thumb. She then confessed to the murder of her sons.

A Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta ([[Kolkata]]), India, in 1897, after the Council of the Governor General approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for the classification of criminal records. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau, before it became the Fingerprint Bureau, were [[Azizul Haque (police officer)|Azizul Haque]] and [[Hem Chandra Bose]]. Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primary development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor, [[Edward Henry|Sir Edward Richard Henry]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tewari|first1=RK|last2=Ravikumar|first2=KV|title=History and development of forensic science in India|journal=J Postgrad Med|year=2000|volume=46|issue=46|pages=303–308|pmid=11435664}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jan102005/185.pdf|first1=J.S.|last1=Sodhi|first2=asjeed|last2=Kaur|title=The forgotten Indian pioneers of finger print science|journal=Current Science|year=2005|volume=88|issue=1|pages=185–191|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050208112115/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jan102005/185.pdf|archive-date=8 February 2005}}</ref> The [[Henry Classification System]], co-devised by Haque and Bose, was accepted in England and Wales when the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in [[Scotland Yard]], the [[Metropolitan Police]] headquarters, London, in 1901. Sir Edward Richard Henry subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Armstrong |first1=Benjamin |title=The Fingerprint Sourcebook |url=https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/225320.pdf |website=Office of Justice Programs |publisher=National Institute of Justice |access-date=30 November 2023}}</ref>

In the United States, Henry P. DeForrest used fingerprinting in the [[New York Police Department|New York Civil Service]] in 1902, and by December 1905, [[New York City Police Department]] Deputy Commissioner Joseph A. Faurot, an expert in the [[Alphonse Bertillon|Bertillon]] system and a fingerprint advocate at Police Headquarters, introduced the fingerprinting of criminals to the United States.<ref>Introduction to U.S. 23 Dec 1905 New York – The City Record Volume 33</ref>