Editing Ethics (section)

=== Virtue ethics ===
{{main|Virtue ethics}}
The main concern of virtue ethics is how [[virtue]]s are expressed in actions. As such, it is neither directly interested in the consequences of actions nor in universal moral duties.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Slote|2005a|pp=947–948}} | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Virtues are positive character traits like [[honesty]], [[courage]], [[kindness]], and [[compassion]]. They are usually understood as [[disposition]]s to feel, decide, and act in a certain manner by being wholeheartedly committed to this manner. Virtues contrast with [[vice]]s, which are their harmful counterparts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1.1 Virtue}} | {{harvnb|Slote|2005a|pp=947–948}} }}</ref>

Virtue theorists usually say that the mere possession of virtues by itself is not sufficient. Instead, people should manifest virtues in their actions. An important factor is the practical wisdom, also called ''[[phronesis]]'', of knowing when, how, and which virtue to express. For example, a lack of practical wisdom may lead courageous people to perform morally wrong actions by taking unnecessary risks that should better be avoided.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=§ 1.2 Practical Wisdom}} | {{harvnb|Caro|Marraffa|Vaccarezza|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QL4sEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT31 31–33]}} }}</ref>

Different types of virtue ethics differ on how they understand virtues and their role in practical life. [[Eudaimonia|Eudaimonism]] is the original form of virtue theory developed in Ancient Greek philosophy and draws a close relation between virtuous behavior and happiness. It states that people flourish by living a virtuous life. Eudaimonist theories often hold that virtues are positive potentials residing in human nature and that actualizing these potentials results in leading a good and happy life.<ref name="Hursthouse 2023 loc=§ 2. Forms of Virtue Ethics">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=§ 2. Forms of Virtue Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Athanassoulis|loc=§ 3. Virtue Ethical Theories}} }}</ref> Agent-based theories, by contrast, see happiness only as a side effect and focus instead on the admirable traits and motivational characteristics expressed while acting. This is often combined with the idea that one can learn from [[role model|exceptional individuals]] what those characteristics are.<ref name="Hursthouse 2023 loc=§ 2. Forms of Virtue Ethics"/> Feminist [[ethics of care]] are another form of virtue ethics. They emphasize the importance of [[interpersonal relationship]]s and say that benevolence by caring for the [[well-being]] of others is one of the key virtues.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Athanassoulis|loc=§ 3c. The Ethics of Care}} | {{harvnb|Sander-Staudt|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

Influential schools of virtue ethics in ancient philosophy were [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Stoicism]]. According to [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), each virtue{{efn|The ancient Greeks used the word {{lang|grc|arête}}, which has the meaning of both 'virtue' and 'excellence'.<ref>{{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=§ 1. Preliminaries}}</ref>}} is a [[Golden mean (philosophy)|golden mean]] between two types of vices: excess and deficiency. For example, courage is a virtue that lies between the deficient state of [[cowardice]] and the excessive state of [[Recklessness (psychology)|recklessness]]. Aristotle held that virtuous action leads to happiness and makes people flourish in life.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Skirbekk|Gilje|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_I00e3SQAwMC&pg=PA81 81]}} | {{harvnb|Kraut|2022|loc=Lead section, § 5. The Doctrine of the Mean}} }}</ref> Stoicism emerged about 300 BCE<ref>{{harvnb|Hill|Blazejak|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UQE5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref> and taught that, through virtue alone, people can achieve happiness characterized by a [[Apatheia|peaceful state of mind]] free from emotional disturbances. The Stoics advocated rationality and self-mastery to achieve this state.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stephens|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|1985|pp=327–328}} }}</ref> In the 20th century, virtue ethics experienced a resurgence thanks to philosophers such as [[Elizabeth Anscombe]], [[Philippa Foot]], [[Alasdair MacIntyre]], and [[Martha Nussbaum]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hursthouse|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EbHmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}}</ref>