Editing Emotion (section)

== Theories<span class="anchor" id="Theory"></span> ==
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{{see also|Functional accounts of emotion}}

=== Pre-modern history ===
In Hinduism, [[Bharata Muni]] enunciated the nine rasas (emotions) in the ''[[Nātyasāstra]]'', an ancient Sanskrit text of [[dramatic theory]] and other performance arts, written between 200 BC and 200 AD.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Natyashastra |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0071.xml |access-date=2024-05-23 |website=obo |language=en}}</ref> The theory of [[Rasa (aesthetics)|rasas]] still forms the [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] underpinning of all Indian classical dance and theatre, such as [[Bharatanatyam]], [[kathak]], [[Kuchipudi]], [[Odissi]], [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]], [[Kudiyattam]], [[Kathakali]] and others.<ref name=":2" /> [[Bharata Muni]] established the following: [[Srungara|Śṛṅgāraḥ]] (शृङ्गारः): Romance / Love / attractiveness, [[Hāsya|Hāsyam]] (हास्यं): Laughter / mirth / comedy, Raudram (रौद्रं): Fury / Anger, [[Karuṇā|Kāruṇyam]] (कारुण्यं): Compassion / mercy, Bībhatsam (बीभत्सं): Disgust / aversion, [[Bhayānaka|Bhayānakam]] (भयानकं): Horror / terror, Veeram (वीरं): Pride / Heroism, Adbhutam (अद्भुतं): Surprise / wonder.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A rasa reader: classical Indian aesthetics |date=2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-17390-2 |editor-last=Pollock |editor-first=Sheldon I. |series=Historical sourcebooks in classical Indian thought |location=New York}}</ref>

In [[Buddhism]], emotions occur when an object is considered attractive or repulsive. There is a felt tendency impelling people towards attractive objects and propelling them to move away from repulsive or harmful objects; a disposition to possess the object (greed), to destroy it (hatred), to flee from it (fear), to get obsessed or worried over it (anxiety), and so on.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Psychology of Emotions in Buddhist Perspective|vauthors=de Silva P|year=1976|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/desilva-p/wheel237.html|access-date=3 August 2020|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109030102/https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/desilva-p/wheel237.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[Stoicism|Stoic]] theories, normal emotions (like delight and fear) are described as irrational impulses that come from incorrect appraisals of what is 'good' or 'bad'. Alternatively, there are 'good emotions' (like joy and caution) experienced by those that are wise, which come from correct appraisals of what is 'good' and 'bad'.<ref>{{cite book|last=Arius Didymus|title="Epitome of Stoic Ethics" in the Anthology of Stobaeus|at=Book 2. Chapter 7. Section 10|url=https://www.stoictherapy.com/elibrary-epitome#10|access-date=18 January 2021|archive-date=18 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118014519/https://www.stoictherapy.com/elibrary-epitome#10|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cicero|title=Tusculan Disputations|at=Book 4. Section 6|url=http://www.john-uebersax.com/plato/passions.htm|access-date=18 January 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414123551/http://www.john-uebersax.com/plato/passions.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Aristotle]] believed that emotions were an essential component of [[virtue]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Aristotle|title=Nicomachean Ethics|at=Book 2. Chapter 6|url=http://www.constitution.org/ari/ethic_02.htm#2.6|access-date=5 February 2013|archive-date=29 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029104527/http://www.constitution.org/ari/ethic_02.htm#2.6|url-status=live}}</ref> In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities. During the [[Middle Ages]], the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by [[scholasticism]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Aquinas|first=Thomas|name-list-style=vanc|title=Summa Theologica|at=Q.59, Art.2|url=http://www.newadvent.org/summa/2059.htm|access-date=5 February 2013|archive-date=27 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127221643/http://newadvent.org/summa/2059.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> in particular.

In Chinese antiquity, excessive emotion was believed to cause damage to ''[[qi]]'', which in turn, damages the vital organs.<ref name="Suchy 2011">{{cite book|last=Suchy|first=Yana|name-list-style=vanc|title=Clinical neuropsychology of emotion|year=2011|publisher=Guilford|location=New York}}</ref> The [[humorism|four humors]] theory made popular by [[Hippocrates]] contributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it did for [[medicine]].

In the early 11th century, [[Avicenna]] theorized about the influence of emotions on health and behaviors, suggesting the need to manage emotions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haque|first=Amber|s2cid=38740431|name-list-style=vanc|date=2004|title=Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists|jstor=27512819|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=43|issue=4|pages=357–377|doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z}}</ref>

Early modern views on emotion are developed in the works of philosophers such as [[René Descartes]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], [[Baruch Spinoza]],<ref>See for instance Antonio Damasio (2005) ''Looking for Spinoza''.{{ISBN?}}{{page?|date=May 2023}}</ref> [[Thomas Hobbes]]<ref>Leviathan (1651), VI: Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Notions, Commonly called the Passions; and the Speeches by which They are Expressed</ref> and [[David Hume]]. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an [[empiricism|empiricist]] psychiatric perspective.

=== Western theological ===
Christian perspective on emotion presupposes a theistic origin to humanity. God who created humans gave humans the ability to feel emotion and interact emotionally. Biblical content expresses that God is a person who feels and expresses emotion. Though a somatic view would place the locus of emotions in the physical body, Christian theory of emotions would view the body more as a platform for the sensing and expression of emotions. Therefore, emotions themselves arise from the person, or that which is "imago-dei" or [[Image of God]] in humans. In Christian thought, emotions have the potential to be controlled through reasoned reflection. That reasoned reflection also mimics God who made mind. The purpose of emotions in human life is therefore summarized in God's call to enjoy Him and creation, humans are to enjoy emotions and benefit from them and use them to energize behavior.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert |title=Emotions in the Christian Tradition |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/emotion-Christian-tradition/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Department of Philosophy, Stanford University |access-date=10 June 2022 |date=10 March 2021 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610090841/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/emotion-Christian-tradition/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Robert |title=Spiritual Emotions: A Psychology of Christian Virtues |date=2007 |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=978-0802827401 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-l40X8-S5AC |access-date=10 June 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730080615/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Spiritual_Emotions/L-l40X8-S5AC |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Evolutionary theories ===
{{main|Evolution of emotion|Evolutionary psychology}}
[[File:Expression of the Emotions Figure 15.png|thumb|Illustration from [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' (1872)]]

==== 19th century ====
Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid-late 19th century with [[Charles Darwin]]'s 1872 book ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''.<ref>Darwin, Charles (1872). ''The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals''. Note: This book was originally published in 1872, but has been reprinted many times thereafter by different publishers</ref> Darwin argued that emotions served no evolved purpose for humans, neither in communication, nor in aiding survival.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hess|first1=Ursula|last2=Thibault|s2cid=31276371|title=Darwin & Emotion Expression|date=2009|department=The Principle of Serviceable Habits|journal=American Psychologist|volume=64|issue=2|pages=120–128|doi=10.1037/a0013386|pmid=19203144|quote=for most emotion expressions, Darwin insisted that they were functional in the past or were functional in animals but not in humans.}}</ref> Darwin largely argued that emotions evolved via the inheritance of acquired characters. He pioneered various methods for studying non-verbal expressions, from which he concluded that some expressions had [[cross-cultural]] universality. Darwin also detailed homologous expressions of emotions that [[emotion in animals|occur in animals]]. This led the way for animal research on emotions and the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

==== Contemporary ====
More contemporary views along the [[evolutionary psychology]] spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment.<ref name="Gaulin 6">Gaulin, Steven J.C. and Donald H. McBurney (2003). ''Evolutionary Psychology''. Prentice Hall. {{ISBN|978-0131115293}}, Chapter 6, pp. 121–142.</ref> Emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems.<ref name="pmid25251484">{{cite journal|vauthors=Lerner JS, Li Y, Valdesolo P, Kassam KS|title=Emotion and decision making|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=66|pages=799–823|date=January 2015|pmid=25251484|doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115043|s2cid=5622279 |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jenniferlerner/files/annual_review_manuscript_june_16_final.final_.pdf|access-date=8 July 2019|archive-date=17 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717154321/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jenniferlerner/files/annual_review_manuscript_june_16_final.final_.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in [[neuroimaging]] has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by [[Joseph E. LeDoux]] and [[Antonio Damasio]]. For example, in an extensive study of a subject with [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex|ventromedial frontal lobe]] damage described in the book [[Descartes' Error]], Damasio demonstrated how loss of physiological capacity for emotion resulted in the subject's lost capacity to make decisions despite having robust faculties for rationally assessing options.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Damásio|first1= António |title= Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain |date= 1994 |publisher=Putnam |isbn=0-399-13894-3|author1-link=António Damásio}}</ref> Research on physiological emotion has caused modern neuroscience to abandon the model of emotions and rationality as opposing forces. In contrast to the ancient Greek ideal of dispassionate reason, the neuroscience of emotion shows that emotion is necessarily integrated with intellect.<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Waal |first1= Frans |title=Mama's Last Hug: Animal Emotions and What They Tell Us about Ourselves|date= 2019|isbn=978-0-393-63506-5|publisher=W.W. Norton|location=New York |author1-link=Frans de Waal}}</ref>

Research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see [[affect display]]). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.<ref name="Gaulin 6"/> Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.<ref name="Gaulin 6"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Wright |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Wright (journalist) |title=The Moral Animal |title-link=The Moral Animal |year=1994 |isbn=0-679-76399-6 |oclc=33496013 |publisher=Vintage Books}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=March 2023}}

=== Somatic theories ===
[[Somatic marker hypothesis|Somatic]] theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories came from [[William James]] in the 1880s. The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as [[John T. Cacioppo]],<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Cacioppo JT|year=1998|title=Somatic responses to psychological stress: The reactivity hypothesis|journal=Advances in Psychological Science|volume=2|pages=87–114 }}</ref> [[Antonio Damasio]],<ref name="pmid18472250">{{cite journal|vauthors=Aziz-Zadeh L, Damasio A|s2cid=44371175|title=Embodied semantics for actions: findings from functional brain imaging|journal=Journal of Physiology, Paris|volume=102|issue=1–3|pages=35–39|date=2008|pmid=18472250|doi=10.1016/j.jphysparis.2008.03.012 }}</ref> [[Joseph E. LeDoux]]<ref>LeDoux J.E. (1996) ''The Emotional Brain''. New York: Simon & Schuster.</ref> and [[Robert Zajonc]]<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=McIntosh DN, Zajonc RB, Vig PB, Emerick SW|year=1997|title=Facial movement, breathing, temperature, and affect: Implications of the vascular theory of emotional efference|journal=Cognition & Emotion|volume=11|issue=2|pages=171–95|doi=10.1080/026999397379980}}</ref> who are able to appeal to neurological evidence.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Pace-Schott EF, Amole MC, Aue T, Balconi M, Bylsma LM, Critchley H, Demaree HA, Friedman BH, Gooding AE, Gosseries O, Jovanovic T, Kirby LA, Kozlowska K, Laureys S, Lowe L, Magee K, Marin MF, Merner AR, Robinson JL, Smith RC, Spangler DP, Van Overveld M, VanElzakker MB|display-authors=6|title=Physiological feelings|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=103|pages=267–304|date=August 2019|pmid=31125635|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.002|quote=Currently the predominant opinion is that somatovisceral and central nervous responses associated with an emotion serve to prepare situationally adaptive behavioral responses.|department=Theories of emotion & physiology|doi-access=free |hdl=10919/100456|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

==== James–Lange theory ====
{{main|James–Lange theory}}
[[File:James-Lange Theory of Emotion.png|thumb|357x357px|Simplified graph of [[James–Lange theory|James-Lange Theory of Emotion]]]]
In his 1884 article<ref name="James">{{cite journal|last1=James|first1=William|name-list-style=vanc|author-link=William James|year=1884|title=What Is an Emotion?|url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/emotion.htm|journal=[[Mind (journal)|Mind]]|volume=9|issue=34|pages=188–205|doi=10.1093/mind/os-ix.34.188|access-date=4 April 2011|archive-date=20 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920164538/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/emotion.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[William James]] argued that feelings and emotions were ''secondary'' to [[physiology|physiological]] phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion".<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil|name-list-style=vanc|title=Physiology of Behavior|publisher=Pearson|series=Emotion|volume=11th edition|year=2012|page=388|isbn=978-0205239399}}</ref> To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the [[autonomic nervous system]], which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist [[Carl Lange (physician)|Carl Lange]] also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the [[James–Lange theory]]. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, ''is'' the emotion". James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and either we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be".<ref name=James/>

An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear). This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state.<ref name="Laird">Laird, James, ''Feelings: the Perception of Self'', Oxford University Press</ref> Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions, for example, "I'm crying because I'm sad", or "I ran away because I was scared". The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being ''a priori''), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Reisenzein R|year=1995|title=James and the physical basis of emotion: A comment on Ellsworth|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=4|pages=757–761|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.4.757 }}</ref>

Although mostly abandoned in its original form, Tim Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of the James-Lange theory of emotions.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Dalgleish T|s2cid=148864726|year=2004|title=The emotional brain|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=5|issue=7|pages=582–589|doi=10.1038/nrn1432|pmid=15208700 }}</ref>

{{blockquote|The James–Lange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. Most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified James–Lange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion. (p. 583)}}

==== Cannon–Bard theory ====
{{main|Cannon–Bard theory}}
[[Walter Bradford Cannon]] agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain [[subjectivity|subjective]] emotional experiences. He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil|name-list-style=vanc|title=Physiology of Behavior|publisher=Pearson|series=Emotion|edition=11th|year=2012|page=389|isbn=978-0205239399}}</ref> He also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses.<ref name="Cannon 1929 399–421">{{cite journal|last=Cannon|first=Walter B.|name-list-style=vanc|title=Organization for Physiological Homeostasis|journal=Physiological Reviews|year=1929|volume=9|issue=3|pages=399–421|doi=10.1152/physrev.1929.9.3.399|s2cid=87128623 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cannon|first=Walter B.|name-list-style=vanc|title=The James-Lange theory of emotion: A critical examination and an alternative theory.|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|year=1927|volume=39|issue=1/4|pages=106–124|doi=10.2307/1415404|jstor=1415404|s2cid=27900216 }}</ref> An example of this theory in action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion.

Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the [[diencephalon]] (particularly the [[thalamus]]), before being subjected to any further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.<ref name="Cannon 1929 399–421"/>

==== Two-factor theory ====
{{main|Two-factor theory of emotion}}
[[Stanley Schachter]] formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, [[Gregorio Marañón]], who injected patients with [[adrenaline|epinephrine]] and subsequently asked them how they felt. Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear.<ref name="Schacter" /> With his student, [[Jerome E. Singer|Jerome Singer]], Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenalin or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) ''Gut Reactions''.<ref name="Prinz2004">{{cite book|last=Prinz|first=Jesse J.|title=Gut Reactions: A Perceptual Theory of Emotion|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0195348590}}{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref>

=== Cognitive theories ===
With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur.

Cognitive theories of emotion emphasize that emotions are shaped by how individuals interpret and appraise situations. These theories highlight:

# The role of [[cognitive appraisal]]s in evaluating the significance of events.
# The subjectivity of emotions and the influence of individual differences.
# The cognitive labeling of emotional experiences.
# The complexity of emotional responses, influenced by cognitive processes, physiological reactions, and situational factors.

These theories acknowledge that emotions are not automatic reactions but result from the interplay of cognitive interpretations, physiological responses, and the social context. A prominent philosophical exponent is [[Robert C. Solomon]] (for example, ''The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life'', 1993<ref>{{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Robert C. |url=https://archive.org/details/passions00robe |title=The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Hackett Publishing |year=1993 |isbn=0872202267 |location=Indianapolis |url-access=registration}}</ref>). Solomon claims that emotions are judgments. He has put forward a more nuanced view which responds to what he has called the 'standard objection' to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion.

==== Cognitive Appraisal Theory ====
One of the main proponents of this view was [[Richard Lazarus]] who argued that emotions must have some cognitive [[intentionality]]. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing.

Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order:
# '''Cognitive appraisal''': The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion.
# '''Physiological changes''': The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response.
# '''Action''': The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react.

For example: Jenny sees a snake.
# Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence. Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger.
# Her brain activates the adrenal glands which pump adrenalin through her blood stream, resulting in increased heartbeat.
# Jenny screams and runs away.

Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes underline [[coping strategies]] that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

==== Two-Process Theory ====
[[George Mandler]] provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (''Mind and Emotion'', 1975,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mandler|first=George|title=Mind and Emotion|year=1975|publisher=R.E. Krieger Publishing Company|location=Malabar|isbn=978-0898743500}}</ref> and ''Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress'', 1984<ref>{{cite book|last=Mandler|first=George|title=Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress|year=1984|publisher=W.W. Norton|location=New York|oclc=797330039}}</ref>)

George Mandler, a prominent psychologist known for his contributions to the study of cognition and emotion, proposed the "Two-Process Theory of Emotion". This theory offers insights into how emotions are generated and how cognitive processes play a role in emotional experiences. Mandler's theory focuses on the interplay between primary and secondary appraisal processes in the formation of emotions. Here are the key components of his theory:

# '''Primary Appraisal''': This initial cognitive appraisal involves evaluating a situation for its relevance and implications for one's well-being. It assesses whether a situation is beneficial, harmful, or neutral. A positive primary appraisal may lead to positive emotions, while a negative primary appraisal may lead to negative emotions.
# '''Secondary Appraisal''': Secondary appraisal follows the primary appraisal and involves an assessment of one's ability to cope with or manage the situation. If an individual believes they have the resources and skills to cope effectively, this may result in a different emotional response than if they perceive themselves as unable to cope.
# '''Emotion Generation''': The combination of the primary and secondary appraisals contributes to the generation of emotions. The specific emotion experienced is determined by these appraisals. For instance, if a person appraises a situation as relevant to their well-being (positive or negative) and believes they have the resources to cope, this might lead to an emotion such as joy or relief. Conversely, if the situation is appraised negatively, and coping resources are perceived as lacking, emotions like fear or sadness may result.

Mandler's Two-Process Theory of Emotion emphasizes the importance of cognitive appraisal processes in shaping emotional experiences. It recognizes that emotions are not just automatic reactions but result from complex evaluations of the significance of situations and one's ability to manage them effectively. This theory underscores the role of cognition in the emotional process and highlights the interplay of cognitive factors in the formation of emotions.

==== The [[Affect infusion model|Affect Infusion Model]] (AIM) ====
The Affect Infusion Model (AIM) is a psychological framework that was developed by Joseph Forgas in the 1990s. This model focuses on how affect, or mood and emotions, can influence cognitive processes and decision-making. The central idea of the AIM is that affect, whether it is a positive or negative mood, can "infuse" or influence various cognitive activities, including information processing and judgments.

Key components and principles of the Affect Infusion Model include:

# '''Affect as Information''': The AIM posits that individuals use their current mood or emotional state as a source of information when making judgments or decisions. In other words, people consider their emotional experiences as part of the decision-making process.
# '''Information Processing Strategies''': The model suggests that affect can influence the strategies people use to process information. Positive affect might lead to a more heuristic or "top-down" processing style, whereas negative affect might lead to a more systematic, detail-oriented "bottom-up" processing style.
# '''Affect Congruence''': The AIM suggests that when the affective state is congruent with the information being processed, it can enhance processing efficiency and lead to more favorable judgments. For example, a positive mood might lead to more positive evaluations of positive information.
# '''Affect Infusion''': The concept of "affect infusion" refers to the idea that affect can "infuse" or bias cognitive processes, potentially leading to decision-making that is influenced by emotional factors.
# '''Moderating Factors''': The model acknowledges that various factors, such as individual differences, task complexity, and the extent of attention paid to one's mood, can moderate the degree to which affect influences cognition.

The Affect Infusion Model has been applied to a wide range of areas, including consumer behavior, social judgment, and interpersonal interactions. It emphasizes the idea that emotions and mood play a more significant role in cognitive processes and decision-making than traditionally thought. While it has been influential in understanding the interplay between affect and cognition, it is important to note that the AIM is just one of several models in the field of emotion and cognition that help explain the intricate relationship between emotions and thinking.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

==== Appraisal-Tendency Theory ====
The Appraisal-Tendency Theory,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lerner |first1=Jennifer S. |last2=Han |first2=Seunghee |last3=Keltner |first3=Dacher |date=July 2007 |title=Feelings and Consumer Decision Making: Extending the Appraisal-Tendency Framework |url=https://myscp.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1016/S1057-7408%2807%2970027-X |journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=181–187 |doi=10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70027-X |issn=1057-7408}}</ref> developed by Joseph P. Forgas, is a theory that focuses on how people have dispositional tendencies to appraise and interpret situations in specific ways, leading to consistent emotional reactions to particular types of situations. This theory suggests that certain individuals may have stable, habitual patterns of appraising and attributing emotional significance to events, and these tendencies can influence their emotional responses and judgments.

Key features and concepts of the Appraisal-Tendency Theory include:

# '''Cognitive Appraisals''': Appraisal tendencies refer to the habitual or characteristic ways that individuals appraise or evaluate situations. Appraisals involve cognitive judgments about the personal relevance, desirability, and significance of events or situations.
# '''Stable and Individual Differences''': The theory posits that these appraisal tendencies are stable and relatively consistent across time. They are also seen as individual differences, meaning that people may differ in the specific appraisal tendencies they exhibit.
# '''Emotional Responses''': Appraisal tendencies influence emotional responses to situations. For instance, individuals with a tendency to appraise situations as threatening may consistently experience fear or anxiety in response to a range of situations perceived as threats.
# '''Influence on Social Judgments''': The theory extends beyond emotions to include the impact of appraisal tendencies on social judgments and evaluations. For example, individuals with a tendency to perceive events as unfair may make consistent social judgments related to fairness and justice.
# '''Context Dependence''': Appraisal tendencies may interact with situational factors. In some situations, the tendency to appraise a situation as threatening, for instance, may lead to fear, while in different contexts, it may not produce the same emotional response.

Appraisal-Tendency Theory suggests that these cognitive tendencies can shape an individual's overall emotional disposition, influencing their emotional reactions and social judgments. This theory has been applied in various contexts, including studies of personality, social psychology, and decision-making, to better understand how cognitive appraisal tendencies influence emotional and evaluative responses.

==== Laws of Emotion ====
[[Nico Frijda]] was a prominent psychologist known for his work in the field of emotion and affective science. One of the key contributions of Frijda are his "Laws of Emotion",<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Haviland-Jones |first1=Jeannette M. |title=Handbook of emotions |last2=Lewis |first2=Michael |last3=Barrett |first3=Lisa Feldman |date=2016 |publisher=Guilford press |isbn=978-1-4625-2534-8 |edition=4 |location=New York (N.Y.)}}</ref> which outline a set of principles that help explain how emotions function and how they are experienced. Frijda's Laws of Emotion are as follows:

# '''The Law of Situational Meaning''': This law posits that emotions are elicited by events or situations that have personal significance and meaning for the individual. Emotions are not random but are a response to the perceived meaning of the situation.
# '''The Law of Concern''': Frijda suggests that emotions are fundamentally concerned with the individual's well-being and adaptation. Emotions serve as signals or reactions to situations that impact one's goals, needs, or values.
# '''The Law of Appraisal''': This law acknowledges the role of cognitive appraisal processes in the emotional experience. Individuals appraise or evaluate a situation based on factors such as its relevance, congruence with goals, and coping potential, which in turn shapes the specific emotional response.
# '''The Law of Readiness''': Frijda's theory suggests that emotions prepare individuals for action. Emotions are associated with physiological changes and action tendencies that ready the individual to respond to the situation. For example, fear may prepare someone to escape a threat.
# '''The Law of Concerned Expectancy''': Emotions are influenced by both what is happening now and what is anticipated to occur in the future. Emotions can reflect an individual's expectations about the consequences of a situation.

Frijda's theory emphasizes the adaptive function of emotions and the role of cognitive appraisal in shaping emotional experiences. It highlights that emotions are not simply reactions to external events but are intimately tied to the individual's goals, values, and perceptions of the situation's meaning. Frijda's work has had a significant influence on the study of emotions and has contributed to a more comprehensive understanding of how emotions operate.

=== Emotion Attribution Theory ===
[[Jesse Prinz]] is a contemporary philosopher and cognitive scientist who has contributed to the field of emotion theory. One of his influential theories is the "Emotion Attribution Theory",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prinz |first=Jesse J. |title=Gut reactions: a perceptual theory of emotion |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-530936-2 |series=Philosophy of mind series |location=Oxford}}</ref> which provides a perspective on how people recognize and understand emotions in themselves and others.

Emotion Attribution Theory, proposed by Jesse Prinz, focuses on the role of emotion attributions in the experience and understanding of emotions. Key ideas and components of Prinz's theory include:

# '''Emotion Attribution''': Prinz suggests that emotions are recognized through a process of attributing specific emotional states to oneself and others based on observed or perceived cues. These cues can include facial expressions, body language, vocal tone, and context.
# '''Basic Emotions''': Prinz's theory is associated with the idea of basic emotions, which are a limited set of universal and biologically driven emotional states. He argues that attributions of basic emotions are part of human cognitive architecture and that these attributions are made automatically and rapidly.
# '''Social and Cultural Influence''': While basic emotions are seen as universal, Prinz acknowledges the role of social and cultural factors in shaping how emotions are expressed and interpreted. Culture can influence the display rules for emotions and how emotions are perceived in various contexts.
# '''Emotion and Moral Evaluation''': Prinz's theory also explores the connection between emotions and moral evaluation. He suggests that emotions are linked to our moral judgments and evaluations of actions and events. Emotion attributions are crucial in the moral assessment of others' behaviors.

Overall, Prinz's Emotion Attribution Theory emphasizes the role of attributions in the recognition and understanding of emotions. It highlights the automatic and cognitive processes involved in identifying and interpreting emotional states in oneself and others. This theory has implications for fields such as psychology, philosophy, and cognitive science and contributes to our understanding of the social and cultural aspects of emotions.

=== Affective Events Theory (AET) ===
The [[Affective events theory|Affective Events Theory]] (AET)<ref>Weiss HM, Cropanzano R. (1996). Affective events theory: a theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. ''Research in Organizational Behavior'' 8: 1±74</ref> is a psychological theory that focuses on the role of workplace events in shaping employees' emotions, attitudes, and behaviors in the context of their job. This theory was developed by organizational psychologists Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano in the late 1990s. AET primarily concerns itself with how emotional experiences at work can impact job satisfaction, performance, and other outcomes.

Key concepts and principles of the Affective Events Theory include:

# '''Affective Events''': AET centers on "affective events", which are specific events or occurrences in the workplace that trigger emotional responses in employees. These events can be positive (e.g., receiving praise or a promotion) or negative (e.g., conflicts with coworkers or work-related stressors).
# '''Emotion Generation''': The theory suggests that these affective events generate emotions in employees. These emotions can be either discrete (specific emotions like happiness, anger, or sadness) or general mood states (e.g., feeling generally positive or negative).
# '''Emotion-Driven Outcomes''': AET posits that emotions generated by affective events at work have consequences for employee attitudes and behaviors. For example, positive emotions may lead to increased job satisfaction, improved performance, and greater commitment to the organization, while negative emotions might result in reduced job satisfaction and increased turnover intentions.
# '''Moderating Factors''': AET recognizes that individual and situational factors can moderate the relationship between affective events and outcomes. Personal characteristics, job roles, and organizational culture can influence how employees respond to affective events.
# '''Feedback Loop''': The theory also suggests that there can be a feedback loop where the emotional reactions of employees influence their perceptions of subsequent events. In other words, an employee's emotional state may color their perception of future events and experiences in the workplace.
# '''Time Lag''': AET acknowledges that the effects of affective events may not be immediate and can manifest over time. The theory allows for the consideration of both short-term and long-term emotional influences on employees.

AET has been influential in the field of organizational psychology and has helped shed light on how workplace events can have a significant impact on employee well-being and organizational outcomes. It highlights the importance of understanding and managing the emotional experiences of employees in the context of their work.

=== Situated perspective on emotion ===
A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino, emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the [[situationism (psychology)|situationism]] approach in psychology.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/2448/ |last1=Griffiths |first1=Paul Edmund |last2=Scarantino |first2=Andrea |year=2009 |chapter=Emotions in the wild: The situated perspective on emotion |isbn=978-0-521-61286-9 |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Situated Cognition |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-first1=Murat |editor-last1=Aydede |editor-first2=Philip |editor-last2=Robbins |access-date=7 March 2023 |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706042455/http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/2448/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals.

=== Genetics ===
Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic [[physiology]], particularly with the [[stress (biology)|stress]] systems. This is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional [[phenotype]] [[temperament]]s affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kotrschal|first=Kurt|editor1-last=Watanabe|editor1-first=Shigeru|editor2-last=Kuczaj|editor2-first=Stan A.|title=Emotions of Animals and Humans: Comparative Perspectives|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3-Tjx9yKZMC&pg=PA4|chapter=Emotions are at the core of individual social performance|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|isbn=978-4431541226|page=4|access-date=2019-07-08|quote=emotional phenotype ('temperament') affects social connectedness, 'social efficiency' and finally, fitness, in complex social systems.|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801101620/https://books.google.com/books?id=y3-Tjx9yKZMC&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}</ref> These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of [[gene]]s and their continuous transmission. Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells. [[Zygote]]s require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every [[speciation]] event, heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring.

In the five million years since the [[lineage (evolution)|lineage]]s leading to modern humans and [[pan (genus)|chimpanzee]]s split, only about 1.2% of their genetic material has been modified. This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including our behaviors. Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. In [[vole]]s (Microtus spp.) minor genetic differences have been identified in a [[vasopressin receptor]] gene that corresponds to major species differences in [[social organization]] and the [[mating system]].<ref name="HammockYoung2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hammock EA, Young LJ |date=June 2005 |title=Microsatellite instability generates diversity in brain and sociobehavioral traits |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5728 |pages=1630–1634 |bibcode=2005Sci...308.1630H |doi=10.1126/science.1111427 |pmid=15947188 |s2cid=18899853}}</ref> Another potential example with behavioral differences is the [[FOXP2]] gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling [[speech]] and [[language]].<ref name="Vargha-Khademetal2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vargha-Khadem F, Gadian DG, Copp A, Mishkin M |date=February 2005 |title=FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and language |journal=Nature Reviews. Neuroscience |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=131–138 |doi=10.1038/nrn1605 |pmid=15685218 |s2cid=2504002}}</ref> Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans.<ref name="Enardetal2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Enard W, Khaitovich P, Klose J, Zöllner S, Heissig F, Giavalisco P, Nieselt-Struwe K, Muchmore E, Varki A, Ravid R, Doxiadis GM, Bontrop RE, Pääbo S |date=April 2002 |title=Intra- and interspecific variation in primate gene expression patterns |journal=Science |volume=296 |issue=5566 |pages=340–343 |bibcode=2002Sci...296..340E |doi=10.1126/science.1068996 |pmid=11951044 |s2cid=17564509}}</ref> Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lindquist |first1=Kristen A. |last2=MacCormack |first2=Jennifer K. |last3=Shablack |first3=Holly |date=2015 |title=The role of language in emotion: predictions from psychological constructionism |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=6 |pages=444 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00444 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=4396134 |pmid=25926809}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-27 |title=Emotion - Social Structures, Physiology, Psychology {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/emotion/Social-structures-of-emotion |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>