Editing Crossbow (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of crossbows}}

=== China ===
[[File:Warring States or Western Han crossbow.jpg|thumb|A bronze crossbow trigger mechanism and butt plate that were mass-produced in the [[Warring States period]] (475–221 BC)]]
[[File:20230208 Painted lacquer crossbow.jpg|thumb|Remains of a [[lacquered]] crossbow. China, Warring States period (475–221 BC)]]

In terms of archaeological evidence, crossbow locks dated {{circa|650 BC}} made of [[cast bronze]] have been found in China .{{sfn|Loades|2018}} They have also been found in Tombs 3 and 12 at [[Qufu]], Shandong, previously the capital of [[Lu (state)|Lu]], and date to the 6th century BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atarn.org/chinese/bjng_xbow/bjng_xbow.htm|title=A Crossbow Mechanism with Some Unique Features from Shandong, China|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518053806/http://www.atarn.org/chinese/bjng_xbow/bjng_xbow.htm |date=18 May 2008|archive-date=18 May 2008|publisher=Asian Traditional Archery Research Network|access-date=20 August 2008}}</ref> Bronze crossbow bolts dating from the mid-5th century BC have been found at a [[Chu (state)|Chu]] burial site in Yutaishan, [[Jiangling County]], [[Hubei]] Province.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wagner| first=Donald B.|year=1993|title=Iron and Steel in Ancient China: Second Impression, With Corrections|publisher=Leiden: E.J. Brill|isbn=9004096329|pages= 153, 157–158}}</ref> Other early finds of crossbows were discovered in Tomb 138 at Saobatang, [[Hunan]] Province, and date to the mid-4th century BC.{{sfn|Mao|1998|pp=109–110}}{{sfn|Wright|2001|p=159}} It is possible that these early crossbows used [[Bullet-shooting crossbow|spherical pellets]] for ammunition. A [[Western Han]] mathematician and music theorist, [[Jing Fang]] (78–37 BC), compared the moon to the shape of a round [[bullet-shooting crossbow|crossbow bullet]].<ref name="needham 1986 vol 3 p227">Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth''. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd, p. 227.</ref> The ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' also mentions crossbow bullets.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=89}}

The earliest Chinese documents mentioning a crossbow were texts from the 4th to 3rd centuries BC attributed to the [[Mohist|followers]] of [[Mozi]]. This source refers to the use of a giant crossbow between the 6th and 5th centuries BC, corresponding to the late [[Spring and Autumn period]]. [[Sun Tzu]]'s ''[[The Art of War]]'' (first appearance dated between 500 BC to 300 BC<ref>James Clavell, ''The Art of War'', prelude</ref>) refers to the characteristics and use of crossbows in chapters 5 and 12 respectively,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/132/132.txt |title=The Art of War, by Sun Tzu |access-date=3 May 2018 |archive-date=4 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504124447/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/132/132.txt |url-status=dead }}</ref> and compares a drawn crossbow to "might".{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=34}} The ''[[Huainanzi]]'' advises its readers not to use crossbows in marshland where the surface is soft and it is hard to arm the crossbow with the foot.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=141}} The ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', completed in 94 BC, mentions that [[Sun Bin]] defeated [[Pang Juan]] by ambushing him with a battalion of crossbowmen at the [[Battle of Maling]] in 342 BC.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=139}} The ''[[Book of Han]]'', finished 111 AD, lists two military treatises on crossbows.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=22}}{{sfn|Wright|2001|p=42}}

[[File:Earthenware architecture models, Eastern Han Dynasty, 5.JPG|thumb|right|A miniature guard wielding a handheld crossbow from the top balcony of a model watchtower, made of glazed earthenware during the [[Eastern Han]] (25–220 AD), from the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].]]

Handheld crossbows with complex bronze trigger mechanisms have also been found with the [[Terracotta Army]] in the tomb of [[Qin Shi Huang]] (r. 221–210 BC) that are similar to specimens from the subsequent [[Han dynasty]] (202 BC–220 AD), while crossbowmen described in the Qin and Han dynasty learned drill formations, some were even mounted as [[chariots in ancient China|charioteers]] and [[horse archery|cavalry units]], and Han dynasty writers attributed the success of numerous [[Han–Xiongnu War|battles against the Xiongnu]] and [[Western Regions]] city-states to massed crossbow volleys.{{sfn|Needham|1994|pp=124–128}} The bronze triggers were designed in such a way that they were able to store a large amount of energy within the bow when drawn but was easily shot with little resistance and recoil when the trigger was pulled. The trigger nut also had a long vertical spine that could be used like a primitive [[iron sight|rear sight]] for [[elevation (ballistics)|elevation]] adjustment, which allowed precision shooting over longer distances. The Qin and Han dynasty-era crossbow was also an early example of a [[modular design]], as the bronze trigger components were also mass-produced with relative precise [[engineering tolerance|tolerances]] so that the parts were interchangeable between different crossbows. The trigger mechanism from one crossbow can be installed into another simply by dropping into a tiller slot of the same specifications and secured with [[dowel pin]]s. Some crossbow designs were also found to be fitted with bronze buttplates and [[trigger guard]].

It is clear from surviving inventory lists in [[Gansu]] and [[Xinjiang]] that the crossbow was greatly favored by the Han dynasty. For example, in one batch of slips there are only two mentions of bows, but thirty mentions of crossbows.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=141}} Crossbows were mass-produced in state armories with designs improving as time went on, such as the use of a mulberry wood stock and brass. Such crossbows during the [[Song dynasty|Song Dynasty]] in 1068 AD could pierce a tree at 140 paces.{{sfn|Peers|1996|pp=130–131}} Crossbows were used in numbers as large as 50,000 starting from the Qin dynasty and upwards of several hundred thousand during the Han.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=143}} According to one authority, the crossbow had become "nothing less than the standard weapon of the Han armies", by the second century BC.{{sfn|Graff|2002|p=22}} Han soldiers were required to arm a crossbow with a draw weight equivalent of {{convert|76|kg|abbr=on}} to qualify as an entry-level crossbowman,{{sfn|Loades|2018}} while it was claimed that a few elite troops were capable of arming crossbows with a draw-weight in excess of {{convert|340|kg|abbr=on}} by the hands-and-feet method.{{sfn|Loades|2018|p=9}}{{sfn|Selby|2000|p=172}}

After the Han dynasty, the crossbow lost favor during the [[Six Dynasties]], until it experienced a mild resurgence during the [[Tang dynasty]], under which the ideal expeditionary army of 20,000 included 2,200 archers and 2,000 crossbowmen.{{sfn|Graff|2002|p=193}} [[Li Jing (Tang dynasty)|Li Jing]] and Li Quan prescribed 20 percent of the infantry to be armed with crossbows.{{sfn|Graff|2016|p=52}}

During the [[Song dynasty]], the crossbow received a huge upsurge in military usage, and often overshadowed the bow 2 to 1 in numbers. During this time period, a [[stirrup]] was added for ease of loading. The Song government attempted to restrict the public use of crossbows and sought ways to keep both body armor and crossbows out of civilian ownership.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=145}} Despite the ban on certain types of crossbows, the weapon experienced an upsurge in civilian usage as both a hunting weapon and pastime. The "romantic young people from rich families, and others who had nothing particular to do" formed crossbow-shooting clubs as a way to pass time.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=146}}

Military crossbows were armed by treading, or basically placing the feet on the bow stave and drawing it using one's arms and back muscles. During the Song dynasty, stirrups were added for ease of drawing and to mitigate damage to the bow. Alternatively, the bow could also be drawn by a belt claw attached to the waist, but this was done lying down, as was the case for all large crossbows. Winch-drawing was used for the large mounted crossbows as seen below, but evidence for its use in Chinese hand-crossbows is scant.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=150}}

=== Southeast Asia ===
{{Main|Austroasiatic crossbow}}
[[File:Ref-chamballista.jpg|thumb|Wheelmounted and elephantmounted double-bow-arcuballistae in the Khmer army, possibly [[Champa|Cham]] mercenaries]]

Around the third century BC, [[An Dương Vương|King An Dương]] of [[Âu Lạc]] (modern-day [[northern Vietnam]]) and (modern-day [[southern China]]) commissioned a man named [[Cao Lỗ]] (or Cao Thông) to construct a crossbow and christened it "Saintly Crossbow of the Supernaturally Luminous Golden Claw" ''(nỏ thần)'', which could kill 300 men in one shot.{{sfn|Kelley|2014|p=88}}{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=21}} According to historian Keith Taylor, the crossbow, along with the word for it, seems to have been introduced into China from [[Austroasiatic]] peoples in the south around the fourth century BC.{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=21}} However, this is contradicted by crossbow locks found in ancient Chinese [[Zhou dynasty]] tombs dating to the 600s BC.{{sfn|Loades|2018}}

In 315 AD, Nu Wen taught the [[Chams]] how to build fortifications and use crossbows. The Chams would later give the Chinese crossbows as presents on at least one occasion.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=145}}

Crossbow technology for crossbows with more than one prod was transferred from the Chinese to [[Champa]], which Champa used in its invasion of the [[Khmer Empire]]'s [[Angkor]] in 1177.<ref name="Grant2005">{{cite book|author=R. G. Grant|year=2005|title=Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gb8qAQAAMAAJ&q=champa |publisher=DK Pub.|isbn=978-0756613600 |page=100}}</ref> When the Chams sacked Angkor they used the Chinese siege crossbow.{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OajvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT42 42]}}{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OajvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT80 80]}} The Chinese taught the Chams how to use crossbows and mounted archery Crossbows and archery in 1171.{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OajvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 25]}} The Khmer also had double-bow crossbows mounted on elephants, which Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h suggests were elements of Cham mercenaries in [[Jayavarman VII]]'s army.{{sfn|Liang|2006|p={{page needed|date=November 2020}}}}

The native [[Montagnard (Vietnam)|Montagnard]]s of Vietnam's Central Highlands were also known to have used crossbows, as both a tool for hunting, and later an effective weapon against the [[Viet Cong]] during the Vietnam War.<ref>{{cite web|title=Montagnard Crossbow, Vietnam |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C364947 |website=awm.gov.au|publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]] |access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref> Montagnard fighters armed with crossbows proved a highly valuable asset to the US Special Forces operating in Vietnam, and it was not uncommon for the Green Berets to integrate Montagnard crossbowmen into their strike teams.<ref>{{cite book |author=Smithsonian |title=The Vietnam War: The Definitive Illustrated History |publisher=DK Publishing |year=2017 |pages=64–69 |isbn=978-1465466013}}</ref>

=== Ancient Greece ===
[[File:Gastraphetes Rekonstruktion Saalburg.jpg|thumb|upright|Greek ''[[gastraphetes]]'']]

The earliest crossbow-like weapons in Europe probably emerged around the late 5th century BC when the ''[[gastraphetes]]'', an ancient Greek crossbow, appeared. The name means "belly-bow";{{sfn|DeVries|2003|p=127}} the concave withdrawal rest at one end of the stock was placed against the belly of the operator, and he could press it to withdraw the slider before attaching a string to the trigger and loading the bolt; this could store more energy than [[Bow (weapon)|Greek bows]].{{sfn|DeVries|2003|p=128}} The device was described by the Greek author [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron of Alexandria]] in his ''Belopoeica'' ("On Catapult-making"), which draws on an earlier account of his compatriot engineer [[Ctesibius]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 285–222 BC). According to Heron, the ''gastraphetes'' was the forerunner of the later [[catapult]], which places its invention some unknown time prior to 399 BC.{{sfn|Campbell|2003|pp=3ff.}} The ''gastraphetes'' was a crossbow mounted on a stock divided into a lower and upper section. The lower was a case fixed to the bow, and the upper was a slider which had the same dimensions as the case.{{sfn|DeVries|2003|p=127}} It was used in the [[Sicilian Wars#The Second Sicilian War (410 BCE–340 BCE)|Siege of Motya]] in 397 BC. This was a key [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]] stronghold in [[Sicily]], as described in the 1st century AD by [[Heron of Alexandria]] in his book ''Belopoeica''.<ref>Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, [[Sarah B. Pomeroy]], and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts (1999). ''Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0195097424}}, p. 366</ref>

A crossbow machine, the [[oxybeles]] was in use from 375 BC<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinard |first=Jeff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7hbHEAAAQBAJ |title=Artillery: An Illustrated History of Its Impact |date=2007-03-28 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-561-2 |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref> to around 340 BC, when the torsion principle replaced the tension crossbow mechanism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinard |first=Jeff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7hbHEAAAQBAJ |title=Artillery: An Illustrated History of Its Impact |date=2007-03-28 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-561-2 |pages=5 |language=en}}</ref> Other arrow-shooting machines such as the larger [[ballista]] and smaller [[Scorpio (weapon)|scorpio]] from around 338 BC are [[torsion (mechanics)|torsion]] [[catapult]]s and are not considered crossbows.{{sfn|Campbell|2003|pp=8ff.}}{{sfn|Campbell|2005|pp=26–56}}<ref name="Eric William Marsden, p.57">Eric William Marsden: ''Greek and Roman Artillery: Historical Development'', The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1969, {{ISBN|978-0198142683}}, p. 57</ref> Arrow-shooting machines (''katapeltai'') are briefly mentioned by [[Aeneas Tacticus]] in his treatise on siegecraft written around 350 BC.{{sfn|Campbell|2003|pp=8ff.}} An Athenian inventory from 330 to 329 BC includes catapults bolts with heads and flights.<ref name="Eric William Marsden, p.57" /> Arrow-shooting machines in action are reported from [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II's]] siege of [[Marmara Ereğlisi|Perinthos]] in [[Thrace]] in 340 BC.<ref name="Eric William Marsden, p.60">Eric William Marsden: ''Greek and Roman Artillery: Historical Development'', The Clarendon Press, Oxford 1969, {{ISBN|978-0198142683}}, p. 60</ref> At the same time, Greek fortifications began to feature high towers with shuttered windows in the top, presumably to house anti-personnel arrow shooters, as in [[Aigosthena]].<ref>Josiah Ober: ''Early Artillery Towers: Messenia, Boiotia, Attica, Megarid'', ''American Journal of Archaeology'', Vol. 91, No. 4. (1987), S. 569–604 (569)</ref>

=== Ancient Rome ===
[[File:Roman crossbow.jpg|thumb|upright|A crossbow based on depictions from a Roman grave in Gaul.]]

The late 4th century author [[Vegetius]], in his ''De Re Militari'', describes ''arcubalistarii'' (crossbowmen) working together with archers and artillerymen.{{sfn|Loades|2018}} However it is disputed whether arcuballistas were crossbows or torsion-powered weapons. The idea that the arcuballista was a crossbow is due to Vegetius referring separately to it and the ''[[manuballista]]'', which was torsion powered. Therefore, if the arcuballista was not like the manuballista, it may have been a crossbow. According to Vegetius these were well-known devices and hence he did not describe them in depth. Joseph Needham argues against the existence of Roman crossbowmen:{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=172}}

{{blockquote|On the textual side, there is almost nothing but passing references in the military historian Vegetius (fl. + 386) to 'manuballistae' and 'arcuballistae' which he said he must decline to describe as they were so well known. His decision was highly regrettable, as no other author of the time makes any mention of them at all. Perhaps the best supposition is that the crossbow was primarily known in late European antiquity as a hunting weapon, and received only local use in certain units of the armies of Theodosius I, with which Vegetius happened to be acquainted.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=172}}|Joseph Needham}}

On the other hand [[Arrian]]'s earlier ''Ars Tactica'', from about 136 AD, also mentions 'missiles shot not from a bow but from a machine' and that this machine was used on horseback while in full gallop. It is presumed that this was a crossbow.{{sfn|Loades|2018}}

The only pictorial evidence of Roman arcuballistas comes from sculptural reliefs in [[Roman Gaul]] depicting them in hunting scenes. These are aesthetically similar to both the Greek and Chinese crossbow but it is not clear what kind of release mechanism they used. Archaeological evidence suggests they were similar to the rolling nut mechanism of medieval Europe.{{sfn|Loades|2018}}

=== Medieval Europe ===
[[File:Basilique Saint-Sernin Toulouse 15 (cropped).JPG|thumb|Capital sculpture in the [[Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse|Basilica of Saint-Sernin]] depicting two primitive crossbows without stirrups, early 12th century]]

There are essentially no references to the crossbow in Europe from the 5th until the 10th century. There is however a depiction of a crossbow as a hunting weapon on four [[Pictish stones]] from [[Scotland in the Early Middle Ages|early medieval Scotland]] (6th to 9th centuries): [[St Vigeans|St. Vigeans no. 1]], [[Glenferness]], [[Shandwick]], and [[Meigle]].<ref>John M. Gilbert, ''Hunting and Hunting Reserves in Medieval Scotland'' (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1979), p. 62.</ref>

The crossbow reappeared again in 947 as a French weapon during the siege of [[Senlis]] and again in 984 at the siege of [[Verdun]].{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=170}} Crossbows were used at the [[battle of Hastings]] in 1066, and by the 12th century they had become common battlefield weapons.<ref name="Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey 1995 p. 48">Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey (1995). ''The Book of the Crossbow''. Dover. {{ISBN|0486287203}}, p. 48</ref> The earliest extant European crossbow remains were found at [[Lake Paladru]], dated to the 11th century.{{sfn|Loades|2018}}

[[File:Balestriere1.jpg|upright|thumb|left|A model of a medieval [[Arbalist (crossbowman)|crossbowman]] drawing his bow behind his [[pavise]]. A hook on the end of a strap on his belt engages the bowstring. Holding the crossbow down by putting his foot through the stirrup, he draws the bow by straightening his legs]]

The crossbow superseded hand bows in many European armies during the 12th century, except in England, where the [[longbow]] was more popular. Later crossbows (sometimes referred to as [[arbalest]]s), utilizing all-steel prods, were able to achieve power close (and sometime superior) to longbows but were more expensive to produce and slower to reload because they required the aid of mechanical devices such as the cranequin or [[windlass]] to draw back their extremely heavy bows. Usually these could shoot only two bolts per minute versus twelve or more with a skilled archer, often necessitating the use of a [[pavise]] (shield) to protect the operator from enemy fire.<ref name="Robert Hardy 1992 p. 75">Robert Hardy (1992). ''Longbow: A Social and Military History''. Lyons & Burford. {{ISBN|1852604123}}, p. 75</ref> Along with [[polearm]] weapons made from farming equipment, the crossbow was also a weapon of choice for insurgent peasants such as the [[Taborite]]s. [[Genoese crossbowmen]] were famous mercenaries hired throughout medieval Europe, whilst the crossbow also played an important role in anti-personnel defense of ships.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web| url = http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/A-AAnewsletter/newsletter16.html| title = Notes On West African Crossbow Technology| website = Diaspora.uiuc.edu| access-date = 14 April 2006| archive-date = 26 November 2022| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221126000651/http://www.diaspora.illinois.edu/A-AAnewsletter/newsletter16.html| url-status = dead}}</ref>

[[File:DaVinci Crossbow.JPG|thumb|Sketch by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], c. 1500]]

Crossbows were eventually replaced in warfare by [[gunpowder]] weapons. Early [[hand cannons]] had slower rates of fire and much worse accuracy than contemporary crossbows, but the [[arquebus]] (which proliferated in the mid to late 15th century) matched crossbows' rate of fire while being far more powerful. The [[Battle of Cerignola]] in 1503 was won by Spain largely through the use of matchlock arquebuses, marking the first time a major battle had been won through the use of hand-held firearms. Later, similar competing tactics would feature [[arquebus|harquebusiers]] or [[musket]]eers in formation with pikemen, pitted against cavalry firing [[pistol]]s or [[carbine]]s. While the military crossbow had largely been supplanted by firearms on the battlefield by 1525, the sporting crossbow in various forms remained a popular hunting weapon in Europe until the eighteenth century.<ref>Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey (1995). ''The Book of the Crossbow''. Dover. {{ISBN|0486287203}}, pp. 48–53</ref> The accuracy of late 15th century crossbows compares well with modern handguns, based on records of shooting competitions in German cities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foley |first1=Brendan |title=Interim Report on Gribshunden (1495) Excavations: 2019–2021 |journal=Acta Archaeologica |date=31 January 2024 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=132–145 |doi=10.1163/16000390-09401052 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/acar/94/1/article-p132_10.xml |access-date=26 October 2024 |issn=0065-101X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Crossbows saw irregular use throughout the rest of the 16th century; for example, [[Maria Pita]]'s husband was killed by a crossbowman of the [[English Armada]] in 1589.

=== Islamic world ===

There are no references to crossbows in [[Islamic]] texts earlier than the 14th century. [[Arabs]] in general were averse to the crossbow and considered it a foreign weapon. They called it ''qaus al-rijl'' (foot-drawn bow), ''qaus al-zanbūrak'' (bolt bow) and ''qaus al-faranjīyah'' (Frankish bow). Although [[Muslims]] did have crossbows, there seems to be a split between eastern and western types. Muslims in Spain used the typical European trigger, while eastern Muslim crossbows had a more complex trigger mechanism.{{sfn|Needham|1994|p=175}}

[[Mamluk]] cavalry used crossbows.{{sfn|Loades|2018}}

=== Elsewhere and later ===

[[Oyumi]] were ancient Japanese [[artillery pieces]] that first appeared in the seventh century (during the [[Asuka period]]).<ref name="Japanese Castles AD 250–1540">[https://books.google.com/books?id=U02pzwXNxBIC&dq=o-yumi&pg=PA49 ''Japanese Castles AD 250–1540'']{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Stephen Turnbull, Peter Dennis, Illustrated by Peter Dennis, Osprey Publishing, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1846032530}} p. 49</ref> According to Japanese records, the Oyumi was different from the handheld crossbow also in use during the same time period. A quote from a seventh-century source seems to suggest that the Oyumi may have able to fire multiple arrows at once: "the Oyumi were lined up and fired at random, the arrows fell like rain".<ref name="Japanese Castles AD 250–1540"/> A ninth-century Japanese artisan named Shimaki no Fubito claimed to have improved on a version of the weapon used by the Chinese; his version could rotate and fire projectiles in multiple directions.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wExlaM1ov0sC&q=Shimaki+no+Fubito&pg=PA120|title=Samurai: The Code of the Warrior|isbn=978-1402763120|last1=Louis|first1=Thomas|last2=Ito|first2=Tommy|date= 2008|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=iNc89Xvh-D0C&dq=oyumi&pg=PA42 ''Hired Swords: The Rise of Private Warrior Power in Early Japan''], By [[Karl Friday]], Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992 p. 42</ref> The last recorded use of the Oyumi was in 1189.<ref name="Japanese Castles AD 250–1540"/>

In [[West Africa|West]] and [[Central Africa]],<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090318160239/http://www.photographersdirect.com/buyers/stockphoto.asp?imageid=348455 Baaka pygmy with crossbow]}}. Photographersdirect.com. Retrieved on 24 June 2011.</ref> crossbows served as a scouting weapon and for hunting, with African slaves bringing this technology to natives in America.<ref name="cvplxd">[http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/A-AAnewsletter/newsletter16.html Notes On West African Crossbow Technology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126000651/http://www.diaspora.illinois.edu/A-AAnewsletter/newsletter16.html |date=26 November 2022 }}. Diaspora.uiuc.edu. Retrieved on 24 June 2011.</ref> In the [[Southern United States]], the crossbow was used for hunting and warfare when firearms or gunpowder were unavailable because of economic hardships or isolation.<ref name="cvplxd" /> In the north of Northern America, light hunting crossbows were traditionally used by the [[Inuit]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hunting Network|title=The Crossbow: Four thousand years of traditional archery|url=http://www.bowhunting.com/publisher/crossbow-information/2009/10/2/future-of-crossbow-hunting|access-date=1 March 2015|publisher=bowhunting.com|date=10 February 2009|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402223419/http://www.bowhunting.com/publisher/crossbow-information/2009/10/2/future-of-crossbow-hunting|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{tertiary source inline|date=October 2015}} These are technologically similar to the African-derived crossbows, but have a different route of influence.

Spanish [[conquistador]]s continued to use crossbows in the Americas long after they were replaced in European battlefields by firearms. Only in the 1570s, did firearms become completely dominant among the Spanish in the Americas.<ref name=Espino2012>{{cite journal |last1=Espino López |first1=Antonio |date=2012 |title=El uso táctico de las armas de fuego en las guerras civiles peruanas (1538–1547) |journal=Historica|language=es |volume=XXXVI |issue=2 |pages=7–48 |doi=10.18800/historica.201202.001 |s2cid=258861207 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The [[French Army|French]] and the [[British Army|British]] used a crossbow-like [[Sauterelle]] (French for [[grasshopper]]) in [[World War I]]. It was lighter and more portable than the [[Leach Trench Catapult]], but less powerful. It weighed {{convert|24|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and could throw an [[F1 grenade (France)|F1 grenade]] or [[Mills bomb]] {{convert|110|-|140|m|yd|abbr=on}}.<ref name="RE">{{cite journal|title=The Royal Engineers|journal=The Royal Engineers Journal|publisher=The Institution of Royal Engineers|year=1925|volume=39|page=79}}</ref> The Sauterelle replaced the Leach Catapult in British service and was in turn replaced in 1916 by the [[2-inch Medium Mortar|2-inch Medium Trench Mortar]] and [[Stokes mortar]].<ref name="Britannica1922">{{cite book|title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: 12th Edition 1922, Volume 1|page=470|author=Hugh Chisholm|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Company Limited|year=1922}}<!-- Please note no wikilink is available to the article [Bombthrowers] in EB1922 --></ref> Early in the war, actual crossbows were pressed into service in small numbers by both French and German troops to launch grenades.<ref name=Credland55>{{cite journal | last=Credland | first=Arthur G | title=The Crossbow and the Bow in Modern Warfare | journal=Arms & Armour | volume=7 | issue=1 | date=2010 | issn=1741-6124 | doi=10.1179/174161210X12652009773492 | pages=55–58}}</ref>

A range of crossbows were developed by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied powers]] during the [[Second World War]] for [[assassination]]s and [[covert operation]]s, but none appear to have ever been used in the field.<ref name=Credland58 /><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.spymuseum.org/exhibition-experiences/secrets-revealed/ | title=Secrets Revealed: Highlights from the Grant Verstandig Collection | website=International Spy Museum }}</ref> A small number of crossbows were built and used by Australian forces in the [[New Guinea campaign]].<ref name=Credland58>{{cite journal | last=Credland | first=Arthur G | title=The Crossbow and the Bow in Modern Warfare | journal=Arms & Armour | volume=7 | issue=1 | date=2010 | issn=1741-6124 | doi=10.1179/174161210X12652009773492 | pages=58–76}}</ref>