Editing Cougar (section)

===Social spacing and interactions===
The cougar is a mostly solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults meeting rarely. While generally loners, cougars will reciprocally share kills and seem to organize themselves into small communities defined by the territories of dominant males. Cats within these areas socialize more frequently with each other than with outsiders.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Adaptive social strategies in a solitary carnivore |first1=L. M. |last1=Elbroch |first2=M. |last2=Levy |first3=M. |last3=Lubell |first4=H. |last4=Quigley |first5=A. |last5=Caragiulo |date=2017 |journal=Science Advances |volume=3 |issue=10 |name-list-style=amp |page=e1701218 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1701218 |pmid=29026880 |pmc=5636203 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E1218E}}</ref>

In the vicinity of a cattle ranch in northern Mexico, cougars exhibited [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]] activity that overlapped foremost with the activity of [[Calf (animal)|calves]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gutiérrez-González, C.E. |name-list-style=amp |author2=López-González, C.A. |year=2017 |title=Jaguar interactions with pumas and prey at the northern edge of jaguars' range |journal=PeerJ |volume=5 |pages=e2886 |doi=10.7717/peerj.2886 |doi-access=free |pmid=28133569 |pmc=5248577}}</ref> In a nature reserve in central Mexico, the activity of cougars was [[Crepuscular animal|crepuscular]] and nocturnal, overlapping largely with the activity of the [[nine-banded armadillo]] (''Dasypus novemcinctus'').<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Soria-Díaz, L. |author2=Monroy-Vilchis, O. |author3=Zarco-González, Z. |year=2016 |title=Activity pattern of puma (''Puma concolor'') and its main prey in central Mexico |journal=Animal Biology |volume=66 |pages=13–20 |doi=10.1163/15707563-00002487 |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292946569 |access-date=April 24, 2024 |archive-date=May 5, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505151909/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292946569_Activity_pattern_of_puma_Puma_concolor_and_its_main_prey_in_central_Mexico |url-status=live}}</ref> Cougars in the montane Abra-Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve in southeastern Mexico displayed a [[Cathemerality|cathemeral]] activity pattern.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hernández-Saintmartín, A.D. |author2=Rosas-Rosas, O.C. |author3=Palacio-Núñez, J. |author4=Tarango-Arámbula, L.A. |author5=Clemente-Sánchez, F. |author6=Hoogesteijn, A.L. |year=2013 |title=Activity patterns of jaguar, puma and their potential prey in San Luis Potosí, Mexico |journal=Acta Zoológica Mexicana |volume=29 |issue=3 |url=https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0065-17372013000300005&script=sci_arttext |name-list-style=amp |access-date=April 20, 2024 |archive-date=April 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420154521/https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0065-17372013000300005&script=sci_arttext |url-status=live}}</ref> Data from 12 years of camera trapping in the Pacific slope and Talamanca Cordillera of Costa Rica showed cougars as cathemeral.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Botts, R.T. |author2=Eppert, A.A. |author3=Wiegman, T.J. |author4=Rodriguez, A. |author5=Blankenship, S.R. |author6=Asselin, E.M. |author7=Garley, W.M. |author8=Wagner, A.P. |author9=Ullrich, S.E. |author10=Allen, G.R. |author11=Mooring, M.S. |year=2020 |title=Circadian activity patterns of mammalian predators and prey in Costa Rica |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=101 |issue=5 |pages=1313–1331 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyaa103 |doi-access=free |pmid=33343263 |pmc=7733402 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Both cougars and jaguars in the [[Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary|Cockscomb Basin]] of Belize were nocturnal but avoided each other.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Harmsen, B.J. |author2=Foster, R.J. |author3=Silver, S.C. |author4=Ostro, L.E.T. |author5=Doncaster, C.P. |year=2009 |title=Spatial and temporal interactions of sympatric Jaguars (''Panthera onca'') and Pumas (''Puma concolor'') in a Neotropical forest |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=612–620 |doi=10.1644/08-MAMM-A-140R.1 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> In a protected cloud forest in the central Andes of Colombia, cougars were active from late afternoon to shortly before sunrise and sometimes during noon and early afternoon.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Cepeda-Duque, J.C. |author2=Gómez–Valencia, B. |author3=Alvarez, S. |author4=Gutiérrez–Sanabria, D.R. |author5=Lizcano, D.J. |year=2021 |title=Daily activity pattern of pumas (''Puma concolor'') and their potential prey in a tropical cloud forest of Colombia |journal=Animal Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=267–278 |doi=10.32800/abc.2021.44.0267 |name-list-style=amp|doi-access=free}}</ref> In protected areas of the [[Madidi National Park|Madidi]]-[[Tambopata National Reserve|Tambopata]] Landscape in Bolivia and Peru, cougars were active throughout the day but with a tendency to nocturnal activity that overlapped with the activity of main prey species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ayala, G.M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Viscarra, M.E. |author3=Sarmento, P. |author4=Negrões, N. |author5=Fonseca, C. |author6=Wallace, R.B. |year=2021 |title=Activity patterns of jaguar and puma and their primary prey in the Greater Madidi-Tambopata Landscape (Bolivia, Peru) |journal=Mammalia |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=208–219 |doi=10.1515/mammalia-2020-0058}}</ref> During an 8-year-long study in a modified landscape in southeastern Brazil, male cougars were primarily nocturnal, but females were active at night and day.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Azevedo, F.C. |author2=Lemos, F.G. |author3=Freitas-Junior, M.C. |author4=Rocha, D.G. |author5=Azevedo, F.C.C. |year=2018 |title=Puma activity patterns and temporal overlap with prey in a human-modified landscape at southeastern Brazil |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=305 |issue=4 |pages=246–255 |doi=10.1111/jzo.12558 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Cougars were diurnal in the Brazilian [[Pantanal]], but crepuscular and nocturnal in protected areas in the [[Cerrado]], [[Caatinga]] and [[ecotone]] biomes.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Foster, V.C. |author2=Sarmento, P. |author3=Sollmann, R. |author4=Tôrres, N. |author5=Jácomo, A.T. |author6=Negrões, N. |author7=Fonseca, C. |author8=Silveira, L. |year=2013 |title=Jaguar and Puma activity patterns and predator-prey interactions in four Brazilian Biomes |journal=Biotropica |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=373–379 |doi=10.1111/btp.12021 |jstor=23525363 |bibcode=2013Biotr..45..373F |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Cougars in the Atlantic Forest were active throughout the day but displayed peak activity during early mornings in protected areas and crepuscular and nocturnal activity in less protected areas.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Paviolo, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Di Blanco, Y. E. |author3=De Angelo, C.D. |author4=Di Bitetti, M.S. |year=2009 |title=Protection affects the abundance and activity patterns of pumas in the Atlantic Forest |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=926–934 |doi=10.1644/08-MAMM-A-128.1 |doi-access=free |hdl=11336/59545 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> In central Argentina, cougars were active day and night in protected areas but were active immediately after sunset and before sunrise outside protected areas.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Zanón-Martínez, J.I. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Kelly, M.J. |author3=Mesa-Cruz, J.B. |author4=Sarasola, J.H. |author5=DeHart, C. |author6=Travaini, A. |year=2016 |title=Density and activity patterns of pumas in hunted and non-hunted areas in central Argentina |journal=Wildlife Research |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=449–460 |doi=10.1071/WR16056|bibcode=2016WildR..43..449Z |hdl=11336/44202 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Cougars displayed a foremost crepuscular and nocturnal activity pattern in a ranching area in southern Argentina.<ref name=Guerisoli2019/>

[[Home range]] sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance.<ref name="Utah2">{{cite web |author=Cougar Discussion Group |date=1999 |title=Utah Cougar Management Plan (Draft) |url=http://www.wildlife.utah.gov/pdf/cmgtplan.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616200443/http://www.wildlife.utah.gov/pdf/cmgtplan.pdf |archive-date=June 16, 2007 |access-date=May 2, 2007 |publisher=Utah Division of Wildlife Resources}}</ref> Research suggests a lower limit of {{cvt|25|km2}} and upper limit of {{cvt|1300|km2}} of home range for males.<ref name="Utah">{{cite web |url=http://www.wildlife.utah.gov/pdf/cmgtplan.pdf |title=Utah Cougar Management Plan (Draft) |access-date=May 2, 2007 |author=Cougar Discussion Group |date=1999 |publisher=Utah Division of Wildlife Resources |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616200443/http://www.wildlife.utah.gov/pdf/cmgtplan.pdf |archive-date=June 16, 2007}}</ref> Large male home ranges of {{cvt|150|to|1000|km2}} with female ranges half that size.<ref name="CanGeo2">{{cite web |title=Cougars in Canada (Just the Facts) |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/Magazine/mj04/indepth/justthefacts.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820172927/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/Magazine/mj04/indepth/justthefacts.asp |archive-date=August 20, 2007 |access-date=April 2, 2007 |publisher=[[Canadian Geographic Magazine]]}}</ref> One female adjacent to the [[San Andres Mountains]] was found with a big range of {{cvt|215|km2}}, necessitated by poor prey abundance.<ref name="Dispersal2">{{cite journal |author1=Sweanor, L. |author2=Logan, K. A. |author3=Hornocker, M. G. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Cougar dispersal patterns, metapopulation dynamics, and conservation |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=798–808 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99079.x |bibcode=2000ConBi..14..798S |s2cid=26735359}}</ref> Research has shown cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as many as seven per {{cvt|100|km2}}.<ref name="CAP2">{{Cite web |author1=Nowell, K. |author2=Jackson, P. |name-list-style=amp |year=1996 |title=Wild Cats. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |url=http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807215533/http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |archive-date=August 7, 2007 |access-date=July 27, 2007 |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland}}</ref>

Male home ranges include or overlap with females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males. The home ranges of females overlap slightly. Males create scrapes composed of leaves and [[Plant litter|duff]] with their hind feet, and [[Territorial marking|mark]] them with [[urine]] and sometimes [[feces]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Allen, M. L. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Wittmer, H. U. |author3=Wilmers, C. C. |year=2014 |title=Puma communication behaviours: understanding functional use and variation among sex and age classes |journal=Behaviour |volume=151 |issue=6 |pages=819–840 |doi=10.1163/1568539X-00003173}}</ref> When males encounter each other, they vocalize and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down.<ref name="UWSP22">{{cite web |author1=Hamilton, M. |author2=Hundt, P. |author3=Piorkowski, R. |title=Mountain Lions |url=http://www.uwsp.edu/wildlife/carnivore/Mountain%20Lion%20Natural%20History_files/Mountain%20Lion%20Natural%20History_copy(1).htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613114602/http://www.uwsp.edu/wildlife/carnivore/Mountain%20Lion%20Natural%20History_files/Mountain%20Lion%20Natural%20History_copy%281%29.htm |archive-date=June 13, 2007 |access-date=May 10, 2007 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point]]}}</ref>

Cougars communicate with various vocalizations. Aggressive sounds include growls, spits, snarls, and hisses. During the mating season, estrus females produce [[Cat communication#Call|caterwauls]] or yowls to attract mates, and males respond with similar vocals. Mothers and offspring keep in contact with whistles, chirps, and mews.<ref name="Naughton">{{cite book |author=Naughton, D. |year=2014 |title=The Natural History of Canadian Mammals |publisher=University of Toronto Press |pages=368–373 |isbn=978-1-4426-4483-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Hornocker, M. G. |author2=Negri, S. |name-list-style=amp |title=Cougar: ecology and conservation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSDUxT3fSYEC&pg=PA114 |date=2009 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-35344-9 |pages=113–114}}</ref>