Editing Constantine the Great (section)

==== Constantine adopts the Greek letters Chi Rho for Christ's initials ====
{{See also|Chi Rho}}
{{Main|Battle of the Milvian Bridge}}
{{Further|Ponte Milvio}}
[[File:Konstantinsmedaillon.jpg|thumb|Silver [[medallion]] of 315; Constantine with a [[chi-rho]] symbol as the crest of his [[Helmet of Constantine|helmet]]]]
Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river.<ref name="bvubfs">Odahl, 108.</ref> Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106.</ref> According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms."<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 44.4–6, tr. J.L. Creed, ''Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71.</ref> Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, ''In Hoc Signo Vinces''" ("In this sign thou shalt conquer").<ref>Eusebius, ''Vita Constantini'' 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105.</ref> In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the ''[[labarum]]''.<ref>Eusebius, ''Vita Constantini'' 1.27–29; Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 43, 306; Odahl, 105–06, 319–20.</ref> Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place,<ref>Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113.</ref> but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius.<ref>Cameron and Hall, 208.</ref> He describes the sign as [[Chi (letter)|Chi]] (Χ) traversed by [[Rho]] (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word {{lang|grc|ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ}} (Christos).<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 306; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 73; Odahl, 319.</ref><ref>Cameron and Hall, 206–07; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311.</ref> A medallion was issued at [[Pavia|Ticinum]] in 315 which shows Constantine [[Helmet of Constantine|wearing a helmet]] emblazoned with the ''[[Chi Rho]]'',<ref>Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing ''Roman Imperial Coinage'' 7 Ticinum 36.</ref> and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image.<ref>R. Ross Holloway, ''Constantine and Rome'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", ''Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte'' 5–6 (1954/55): 151–78.</ref> The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s.<ref>Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71.</ref> It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of [[Ptolemy III Euergetes]] in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-0-367-76728-0 |editor-last=Rowley |editor-first=Matthew |series=Themes in medieval and early modern history |location=London New York |editor-last2=Hodgson |editor-first2=Natasha R.}}</ref>

Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned.<ref name="bvubfs" /> The battle was brief,<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 43; Curran, 68.</ref> and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge.<ref>MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 78.</ref> His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ([[Ponte Milvio]]), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 78; Odahl, 108.</ref>