Editing Common buzzard (section)

==Dietary biology==
[[File:Heubach common buzzard.jpg|thumb|An illustration of a buzzard preying on a rodent.]]
The common buzzard is a generalist predator which hunts a wide variety of prey given the opportunity. Their prey spectrum extents to a wide variety of vertebrates including [[mammal]]s, [[bird]]s (from any age from eggs to adult birds), [[reptile]]s, [[amphibian]]s and, rarely, [[fish]], as well as to various [[invertebrate]]s, mostly [[insect]]s. Young animals are often attacked, largely the [[nidifugous]] young of various vertebrates. In total well over 300 prey species are known to be taken by common buzzards. Furthermore, prey size can vary from tiny [[beetle]]s, [[caterpillar]]s and [[ant]]s to large adult [[grouse]] and [[rabbit]]s up to nearly twice their body mass.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Redinov>Redinov, K.А. (2012). ''Trophic links of the Buzzard in Ukraine''. Russian Birds: 155–168.</ref><ref name = Selas>Selas, V., Tveiten, R., & Aanonsen, O. M. (2007). ''Diet of common buzzards (Buteo buteo) in southern Norway determined from prey remains and video recordings''. Ornis Fennica, 84(3), 97.</ref><ref name= Zuberogoitia>Zuberogoitia, I., Martínez, J. E., Martínez, J. A., Zabala, J., Calvo, J. F., Castillo, I., Azkona, A., Iraeta, A. & Hidalgo, S. (2006). ''Influence of management practices on nest site habitat selection, breeding and diet of the common buzzard Buteo buteo in two different areas of Spain''. Ardeola, 53(1), 83–98.</ref> Mean body mass of vertebrate prey was estimated at {{cvt|179.6|g}} in [[Belarus]].<ref name= Sidorovich>Sidorovich, A. A., Ivanovskij, V. V., Sidorovich, V. E., & Solovej, I. A. (2016). ''Landscape-related variation in the diet composition of the common buzzard (Buteo buteo) in Belarus''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 10(1), 65–74.</ref> At times, they will also subsist partially on carrion, usually of dead mammals or fish.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> However, dietary studies have shown that they mostly prey upon small [[mammal]]s, largely small [[rodent]]s.<ref name="Meheretu2019"/> Like many temperate zone raptorial birds of varied lineages, [[vole]]s are an essential part of the common buzzard's diet. This bird's preference for the interface between woods and open areas frequently puts them in ideal vole habitat.<ref>Spidsø, T. K., & Selås, V. (1988). ''Prey selection and breeding success in the common buzzard Buteo buteo in relation to small rodent cycles in southern Norway''. Fauna Norvegica, Series C, 11(2), 61–66.</ref><ref name= Mebs>Mebs, T. (1964). ''Zur Biologie und Populationsdynamik des Mäusebussards (Buteo buteo)(Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Abhängigkeit vom Massenwechsel der Feldmaus Microtus arvalis)''. Journal für Ornithologie, 105(3), 247–306.</ref> Hunting in relatively open areas has been found to increase hunting success whereas more complete shrub cover lowered success.<ref name= Kenward>Kenward, R. E., Hall, D. G., Walls, S. S., & Hodder, K. H. (2001). ''Factors affecting predation by buzzards Buteo buteo on released pheasants Phasianus colchicus''. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38(4), 813–822.</ref> A majority of prey is taken by dropping from perch, and is normally taken on ground. Alternately, prey may be hunted in a low flight. This species tends not to hunt in a spectacular stoop but generally drops gently then gradually accelerate at bottom with wings held above the back. Sometimes, the buzzard also forages by random glides or soars over open country, wood edges or clearings. Perch hunting may be done preferentially but buzzards fairly regularly also hunt from a ground position when the habitat demands it. Outside the breeding season, as many 15–30 buzzards have been recorded foraging on ground in a single large field, especially juveniles. Normally the rarest foraging type is hovering. A study from Great Britain indicated that hovering does not seem to increase hunting success.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref name= Sim>Sim, I. M. W., Cross, A. V., Lamacraft, D. L., & Pain, D. J. (2001). ''Correlates of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo density and breeding success in the West Midlands''. Bird Study, 48(3), 317–329.</ref>

===Mammals===
[[File:The Buzzard catched a mouse and flies away with his majestic wings - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|A buzzard with a freshly caught rodent, likely a [[vole]].]]
A high diversity of [[rodent]]s may be taken given the chance, as around 60 species of rodent have been recorded in the foods of common buzzards.<ref name= Redinov/><ref name= Selas/> It seems clear that [[vole]]s are the most significant prey type for European buzzards. Nearly every study from the continent makes reference to the importance, in particular, of the two most numerous and widely distributed European voles: the {{cvt|28.5|g}} [[common vole]] (''Microtus arvalis'') and the somewhat more northerly ranging {{cvt|40|g}} [[field vole]] (''Microtus agrestis'').<ref name= Halle>Halle, S. (1988). ''Avian predation upon a mixed community of common voles (Microtus arvalis) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus)''. Oecologia, 75(3), 451–455.</ref><ref name= Selas2>Selås, V. (2001). ''Predation on reptiles and birds by the common buzzard, Buteo buteo, in relation to changes in its main prey, voles''. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 79(11), 2086–2093.</ref><ref>Andersson, M., & Erlinge, S. (1977). ''Influence of predation on rodent populations''. Oikos, 591–597.</ref> In southern [[Scotland]], field voles were the best-represented species in pellets, accounting for 32.1% of 581 pellets.<ref name= Graham>Graham, I. M., Redpath, S. M., & Thirgood, S. J. (1995). ''The diet and breeding density of Common Buzzards Buteo buteo in relation to indices of prey abundance''. Bird Study, 42(2), 165–173.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Francksen, R. M. |author2=Whittingham, M. J. | author3=Ludwig, S. C.|author4=Roos, S. | author5=Baines, D. | year=2017| title=Numerical and functional responses of Common Buzzards ''Buteo buteo'' to prey abundance on a Scottish grouse moor| journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=541–553| doi=10.1111/ibi.12471| issue=3| url=https://eprint.ncl.ac.uk/fulltext.aspx?url=233076/02D1E945-B8B7-4AD7-8621-C52195C8ED4C.pdf&pub_id=233076}}</ref> In southern [[Norway]], field voles were again the main food in years with peak vole numbers, accounting for 40.8% of 179 prey items in 1985 and 24.7% of 332 prey items in 1994. Altogether, rodents amount to 67.6% and 58.4% of the foods in these respective peak vole years. However, in low vole population years, the contribution of rodents to the diet was minor.<ref name= Selas2/> As far west as the [[Netherlands]], common voles were the most regular prey, amounting to 19.6% of 6624 prey items in a very large study.<ref name= Bijlsma>Bijlsma, R. G. (2012). ''Reptielen als voer voor jonge Buizerds Buteo buteo''. De takkeling, 20(2), 133–144.</ref> Common voles were the main foods recorded in central [[Slovakia]], accounting for 26.5% of 606 prey items.<ref name= Sotnar>Šotnár, K., & Obuch, J. (2009). ''Feeding ecology of a nesting population of the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in the Upper Nitra Region, Central Slovakia''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 3, 13–20.</ref> The common vole, or other related vole species at times, were the main foods as well in [[Ukraine]] (17.2% of 146 prey items) ranging east to [[Russia]] in the [[Privolshky Les Nature Reserve|Privolshky Steppe Nature Reserve]] (41.8% of 74 prey items) and in [[Samara Oblast|Samara]] (21.4% of 183 prey items).<ref name= Redinov/> Other records from Russia and Ukraine show voles ranging from slightly secondary prey to as much as 42.2% of the diet.<ref name= Chernichko>Chernichko, I.I. & Davygora, A.V. (editors). (2012). ''Buzzards of North Eurasia: Distribution, Population Status, Biology''. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls of North Eurasia, Kryvyi Rih, 27–30 September 2012. – Kryvyi Rih: Press- 272 p.</ref> In [[Belarus]], voles, including ''Microtus'' species and {{cvt|18.4|g}} [[bank vole]]s (''Myodes glareolus''), accounted for 34.8% of the biomass on average in 1065 prey items from different study areas over 4 years.<ref name= Sidorovich/> At least 12 species of the genus ''[[Microtus]]'' are known to be hunted by common buzzards and even this is probably conservative, moreover similar species like [[lemming]]s will be taken if available.<ref name= Redinov/><ref name= Zuberogoitia/><ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Chernichko/><ref name= Costa>Costa, A. S. C. (2017). ''Estudo da dieta de Águia-d'asa-redonda (Buteo buteo [Linnaeus, 1758]) e de Águia-calçada (Hieraaetus pennatus [Gmelin, 1788]) em montados de sobro do Alto-Alentejo'' (Doctoral dissertation).</ref>

Other rodents are taken largely opportunistically rather than by preference. Several [[Apodemus|wood mice]] (''Apodemus ssp.'') are known to be taken quite frequently but given their preference for activity in deeper woods than the field-forest interfaces preferred, they are rarely more than secondary food items.<ref name= Halle/><ref name= Selas2/> An exception was in [[Samara Oblast|Samara]] where the [[yellow-necked mouse]] (''Apodemus flavicollis''), one of the largest of its genus at {{cvt|28.4|g}}, made up 20.9%, putting it just behind the common vole in importance.<ref name= Redinov/> Similarly, [[tree squirrel]]s are readily taken but rarely important in the foods of buzzards in Europe, as buzzards apparently prefer to avoid taking prey from trees nor do they possess the agility typically necessary to capture significant quantities of tree squirrels.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Selas/><ref>McComb, A. M. (2004). ''Raptor Predation Attempts on Grey Squirrels Sciurus carolinensis (Gmelin)''. The Irish Naturalists' Journal, 27(12), 483–484.</ref><ref>Lima, S. L., Valone, T. J., & Caraco, T. (1985). ''Foraging-efficiency-predation-risk trade-off in the grey squirrel''. Animal Behaviour, 33(1), 155–165.</ref> All four [[ground squirrel]]s that range (mostly) into eastern Europe are also known to be common buzzard prey but little quantitative analysis has gone into how significant such predator-prey relations are.<ref>Ramos-Lara, N., Koprowski, J. L., Kryštufek, B., & Hoffmann, I. E. (2014). ''Spermophilus citellus (Rodentia: sciuridae)''. Mammalian Species, 46(913), 71–87.</ref><ref>Matrosova, V. A., Schneiderová, I., Volodin, I. A., & Volodina, E. V. (2012). ''Species-specific and shared features in vocal repertoires of three Eurasian ground squirrels (genus Spermophilus)''. Acta Theriologica, 57(1), 65–78.</ref><ref>Makomaska-Juchiewicz, M., & Baran, P. (2012). ''Monitoring gatunków zwierząt''. Przewodnik metodyczny. Część III. GIOŚ, Warszawa, 292–496.</ref><ref name= Palomar>Palomar, C. J. P. (2005). ''El ratonero común (Buteo buteo insularum) en Fuerteventura, islas Canarias (Aves, Accipitridae)''. Vieraea, 33, 1–7.</ref> Rodent prey taken have ranged in size from the {{cvt|7.8|g}} [[Eurasian harvest mouse]] (''Micromys minutus'') to the non-native, {{cvt|1100|g|lb}} [[muskrat]] (''Ondatra zibethicus'').<ref name= Steiner>Steiner, H. (1999). ''Der Mäusebussard (Buteo buteo) als Indikator für Struktur und Bodennutzung des ländlichen Raumes: produktivität im heterogenen Habitat, Einfluß von Nahrung und Witterung und Vergleiche zum Habicht (Accipiter gentilis) (Vol. 62)''. Biologiezentrum des OÖ. Landesmuseums.</ref> Other rodents taken either seldom or in areas where the food habits of buzzards are spottily known include [[flying squirrel]]s, [[marmot]]s (presumably very young if taken alive), [[Siberian chipmunk|chipmunks]], [[Coypu|spiny rats]], [[hamster]]s, [[Blesmol|mole-rats]], [[Cape gerbil|gerbils]], [[Tristram's jird|jirds]] and [[Williams' jerboa|jerboa]]s and occasionally hearty numbers of [[dormice]], although these are nocturnal.<ref name= Herremans/><ref name= Sidorovich/><ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Chernichko/><ref>Åberg, B., & Hungate, F. P. (Eds.). (2013). ''Radioecological Concentration Processes: Proceedings of an International Symposium Held in Stockholm'', 25–29 April 1966. Elsevier.</ref><ref>Chapuis, J.L. (2006). ''Tamias sibiricus''. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories.</ref><ref name= Pinowski>Pinowski, J., & Ryszkowski, L. (1962). ''The Buzzard’s versatility as a predator''. British Birds, 55, 470–475.</ref><ref>Toyran, K., & Albayrak, İ. (2009). ''Contribution to the Biological Characteristics of Allactaga williamsi Thomas, 1897 in Kırıkkale Province (Mammalia: Rodentia) ''. Uluslararası Doğa ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, (1), 13–17.</ref><ref>Nachtigall, W. (1996). ''Siebenschlafer (Glis glis; Mammalia: Rodentia: Gliridae) als Beute des Mausebussards (Buteo buteo, Aves: Falconiformes: Accipitridae)''. (Beitrage zur Saugetierfauna Sachsens, No. 1). Faunistische Abhandlungen, 20: 320.</ref> Surprisingly little research has gone into the diets of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa, considering their numerous status there. However, it has been indicated that the main prey remains consist of rodents such as the [[four-striped grass mouse]] (''Rhabdomys pumilio'') and [[Cape mole-rat]]s (''Georychus capensis'').<ref name= Steyn/><ref name= Gwynn>Gwynn, L. (2015). ''The identity, origin, and impact of a 'new' buzzard species breeding in South Africa'' (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Town).</ref>

Other than rodents, two other groups of mammals can be counted as significant to the diet of common buzzards. One of these main prey types of import in the diets of common buzzards are [[Leporidae|leporids]] or [[Lagomorpha|lagomorphs]], especially the [[European rabbit]] (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') where it is found in numbers in a wild or feral state. In all dietary studies from Scotland, rabbits were highly important to the buzzard's diet. In southern Scotland, rabbits constituted 40.8% of remains at nests and 21.6% of pellet contents, while lagomorphs (mainly rabbits but also some young [[hare]]s) were present in 99% of remains in [[Moray]], Scotland. The nutritional richness relative to the commonest prey elsewhere, such as voles, might account for the high productivity of buzzards here. For example, clutch sizes were twice as large on average where rabbits were common (Moray) than were where they were rare ([[Glen Urquhart]]).<ref name= Graham/><ref name= Swann/><ref name= Swan>Swan, G. (2011). ''Spatial variation in the breeding success of the common buzzard Buteo buteo in relation to habitat type and diet'' (Doctoral dissertation, Department of Life Sciences, Silwood Park, Imperial College London).</ref> In northern [[Ireland]], an area of interest because it is devoid of any native [[vole]] species, rabbits were again the main prey. Here, lagomorphs constituted 22.5% of prey items by number and 43.7% by biomass.<ref name= Rooney>Rooney, E., & Montgomery, W. I. (2013). ''Diet diversity of the Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in a vole-less environment''. Bird Study, 60(2), 147–155.</ref> While rabbits are non-native, albeit long-established, in the British Isles, in their native area of the [[Iberian peninsula]], rabbits are similarly significant to the buzzard's diet. In [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]], Spain, rabbits were the most common mammal in the diet, making up 16.8% of 167 prey items.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/> In a large study from northeastern Spain, rabbits were dominant in the buzzard's foods, making up 66.5% of 598 prey items.<ref name= Manosa/> In the [[Netherlands]], European rabbits were second in number (19.1% of 6624 prey items) only to common voles and the largest contributor of biomass to nests (36.7%).<ref name= Bijlsma/> Outside of these (at least historically) rabbit-rich areas, [[Hare|leverets]] of the common hare species found in Europe can be important supplemental prey. [[European hare]] (''Lepus europaeus'') were the fourth most important prey species in central [[Poland]] and the third most significant prey species in [[Stavropol Krai]], Russia.<ref name= Chernichko/><ref name= Pinowski/> Buzzards normally attack the young of European rabbits and hares. Most of the rabbits taken by buzzard variously been estimated from {{cvt|159|to|550|g}}, and infrequently up to {{cvt|700|g|lb}} in weight.<ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Manosa/><ref name= Rooney/><ref name= Swann/><ref name = walls.>Walls, Sean, and Robert Kenward. The common buzzard. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020.</ref> Similarly, in different areas and the mean weight of [[European hare|brown hares]] taken in Finland was around {{cvt|500|g|lb}}.<ref name= Reif>Reif, V., Tornberg, R., Jungell, S., & Korpimäki, E. (2001). ''Diet variation of common buzzards in Finland supports the alternative prey hypothesis''. Ecography, 24(3), 267–274.</ref> One young [[mountain hare]]s (''Lepus timidus'') taken in Norway was estimated to about {{cvt|1000|g|lb}}.<ref name= Selas/> However, common buzzards are known to kill adult rabbits at times.<ref name = walls./> This can be supported by remains of relatively large-sized tarsus bones of the rabbit, up to 64mm in length.<ref name= Manosa/><ref>Tobajas, Jorge, et al. "Does prey abundance affect prey size selection by the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo)?." Journal of Ornithology 162.3 (2021): 699-708.</ref>

The other significant mammalian prey type is [[Eulipotyphla|insectivores]], among which more than 20 species are known to be taken by this species, including nearly all the species of [[shrew]], [[Mole (animal)|mole]] and [[hedgehog]] found in Europe. Moles are taken particularly often among this order, since as is the case with "vole-holes", buzzards probably tend to watch molehills in fields for activity and dive quickly from their perch when one of the subterranean mammals pops up.<ref>Skierczyński, M. (2006). ''Food niche overlap of three sympatric raptors breeding in an agricultural landscape in Western Pomerania region of Poland''.</ref> The most widely found mole in the buzzard's northern range is the {{cvt|98|g}} [[European mole]] (''Talpa europaea'') and this is one of the more important non-rodent prey items for the species. This species was present in 55% of 101 remains in [[Glen Urquhart]], Scotland and was the second most common prey species (18.6%) in 606 prey items in [[Slovakia]].<ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Swann>Swann, R. L., & Etheridge, B. (1995). ''A comparison of breeding success and prey of the Common Buzzard Buteo buteo in two areas of northern Scotland''. Bird Study, 42(1), 37–43.</ref> In [[Bari]], Italy, the [[Roman mole]] (''Talpa romana''), of similar size to the European species, was the leading identified mammalian prey, making up 10.7% of the diet.<ref name= Scillitani>Scillitani, G. (1999). ''Dieta della poiana, Buteo buteo (L., 1758) in provincia di Bari''. Avocetta, 23: 169.</ref> The full-size range of insectivores may be taken by buzzards, ranging from the world's smallest mammal (by weight), the {{cvt|1.8|g}} [[Etruscan shrew]] (''Suncus etruscus'') to arguably the heaviest insectivore, the {{cvt|800|g}} [[European hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus europaeus'').<ref name= Swann/><ref name= Manosa>Manosa, S. & Cordero, P.J. (1992). ''SEASONAL AND SEXUAL VARIATION IN THE DIET OF THE COMMON BUZZARD IN NORTHEASTERN SPAIN''. J. Raptor Res., 26(4), 235–238.</ref> Mammalian prey for common buzzards other than rodents, insectivores, and lagomorphs is rarely taken. Occasionally, some [[weasel]]s such as [[least weasel]] (''Mustela nivalis'') and [[stoat]] (''Mustela erminea'') are taken, and remains of young [[pine marten]]s (''Martes martes'') and adult [[european polecat]]s (''Mustela putorius'') was found in buzzard nest.<ref name= Selas2/><ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Chernichko/><ref name= Graham/><ref>Korpimäki, E., & Norrdahl, K. (1989). ''Avian predation on mustelids in Europe 1: occurrence and effects on body size variation and life traits''. Oikos, 205–215.</ref><ref name = Francksen>Francksen, R. M., Whittingham, M. J., & Baines, D. (2016). ''Assessing prey provisioned to Common Buzzard Buteo buteo chicks: a comparison of methods''. Bird Study, 63(3), 303–310.</ref> Numerous larger mammals, including medium-sized carnivores such as [[dog]]s, [[cat]]s and [[Red fox|fox]]es and various [[ungulate]]s, are sometimes eaten as carrion by buzzards, mainly during lean winter months. Still-borns of [[deer]] are also visited with some frequency.<ref name= Sidorovich/><ref name= Swann/><ref name= Palomar/><ref>Selva, N., Jedrzejewska, B., Jedrzejewski, W., & Wajrak, A. (2003). ''Scavenging on European bison carcasses in Bialowieza primeval forest (eastern Poland)''. Ecoscience, 10(3), 303–311.</ref>

===Birds===
[[File:Crow attacking Buzzard - Woburn Safari Park (4552169984).jpg|thumb|right|A [[Carrion crow|crow]] mobs a buzzard. Buzzards will readily prey on crows, especially their fledglings.]]
When attacking birds, common buzzards chiefly prey on nestlings and fledglings of small to medium-sized birds, largely [[passerine]]s but also a variety of [[Galliformes|gamebirds]], but sometimes also injured, sickly or unwary but healthy adults. While capable of overpowering birds larger than itself, the common buzzard is usually considered to lack the agility necessary to capture many adult birds, even gamebirds which would presumably be weaker fliers considering their relatively heavy bodies and small wings.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/> The amount of fledgling and younger birds preyed upon relative to adults is variable, however. For example, in the [[Alps|Italian Alps]], 72% of birds taken were fledglings or recently fledged juveniles, 19% were nestlings and 8% were adults.<ref name= Sergio>Sergio, F., Boto, A., Scandolara, C., & Bogliani, G. (2002). ''Density, nest sites, diet, and productivity of Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) in the Italian pre-Alps''. Journal of Raptor Research, 36(1), 24–32.</ref> On the contrary, in southern [[Scotland]], even though the buzzards were taking relatively large bird prey, largely [[red grouse]] (''Lagopus lagopus scotica''), 87% of birds taken were reportedly adults.<ref name= Graham/> In total, as in many raptorial birds that are far from bird-hunting specialists, birds are the most diverse group in the buzzard's prey spectrum due to the sheer number and diversity of birds, few raptors do not hunt them at least occasionally. Nearly 150 species of bird have been identified in the common buzzard's diet. In general, despite many that are taken, birds usually take a secondary position in the diet after mammals.<ref name= Selas2/><ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Chernichko/> In northern [[Scotland]], birds were fairly numerous in the foods of buzzards. The most often recorded avian prey and 2nd and 3rd most frequent prey species (after only field voles) in [[Glen Urquhart]], were {{cvt|23.9|g}} [[chaffinch]] (''Fringilla coelebs'') and {{cvt|18.4|g}} [[meadow pipit]]s (''Anthus pratensis''), with the buzzards taking 195 fledglings of these species against only 90 adults. This differed from [[Moray]] where the most frequent avian prey and 2nd most frequent prey species behind the rabbit was the {{cvt|480|g}} [[common wood pigeon]] (''Columba palumbus'') and the buzzards took four times as many adults relative to fledglings.<ref name= Swann/>

Birds were the primary food for common buzzards in the [[Alps|Italian Alps]], where they made up 46% of the diet against mammal which accounted for 29% in 146 prey items. The leading prey species here were {{cvt|103|g}} [[Eurasian blackbird]]s (''Turdus merula'') and {{cvt|160|g}} [[Eurasian jay]]s (''Garrulus glandarius''), albeit largely fledglings were taken of both.<ref name= Sergio/> Birds could also take the leading position in years with low vole populations in southern [[Norway]], in particular [[thrush (bird)|thrush]]es, namely the blackbird, the {{cvt|67.7|g}} [[song thrush]] (''Turdus philomelos'') and the {{cvt|61|g}} [[redwing]] (''Turdus iliacus''), which were collectively 22.1% of 244 prey items in 1993.<ref name= Selas2/> In southern Spain, birds were equal in number to mammals in the diet, both at 38.3%, but most remains were classified as "unidentified medium-sized birds", although the most often identified species of those that apparently could be determined were Eurasian jays and [[red-legged partridge]]s (''Alectoris rufa'').<ref name= Zuberogoitia/> Similarly, in northern [[Ireland]], birds were roughly equal in import to mammals but most were unidentified [[corvid]]s.<ref name= Rooney/> In [[Seversky Donets]], Ukraine, birds and mammals both made up 39.3% of the foods of buzzards.<ref name= Chernichko/> Common buzzards may hunt nearly 80 species passerines and nearly all available gamebirds. Like many other largish raptors, gamebirds are attractive to hunt for buzzards due to their ground-dwelling habits. Buzzards were the most frequent predator in a study of juvenile pheasants in England, accounting for 4.3% of 725 deaths (against 3.2% by [[Red fox|foxes]], 0.7% by [[owl]]s and 0.5% by other mammals).<ref name= Kenward/><ref>Parrott, D. (2015). ''Impacts and management of common buzzards Buteo buteo at pheasant Phasianus colchicus release pens in the UK: a review''. European journal of wildlife research, 61(2), 181–197.</ref> They also prey on a wide size range of birds, ranging down to Europe's smallest bird, the {{cvt|5.2|g}} [[goldcrest]] (''Regulus regulus'').<ref name= CRC2/><ref name= Selas2/> Very few individual birds hunted by buzzards weigh more than {{cvt|500|g|lb}}. However, there have been some particularly large avian kills by buzzards, including any that weigh more or {{cvt|1000|g|lb}}, or about the largest average size of a buzzard, have including adults of [[mallard]] (''Anas platyrhynchos''), [[black grouse]] (''Tetrao tetrix''), [[ring-necked pheasant]] (''Phasianus colchicus''), [[common raven]] (''Corvus corax'') and some of the larger [[gull]]s if ambushed on their nests. The largest avian kill by a buzzard, and possibly largest known overall for the species, was an adult female [[western capercaillie]] (''Tetrao urogallus'') that weighed an estimated {{cvt|1985|g|lb}}.<ref name= Selas2/><ref name= Graham/><ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Swann/> At times, buzzards will hunt the young of large birds such as [[Grey heron|herons]] and [[Black-necked crane|cranes]].<ref>Boonman, M. & de Vrieslaan, H. (1992). ''[Buzzard Buteo buteo examines a nest of a Grey Heron Ardea cinerea]''. Limosa, 65: 29–30.</ref><ref>[[Paul Johnsgard|Johnsgard, P. A.]] (1983). ''Cranes of the World: Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis)''. Cranes of the World, by Paul Johnsgard, Vol. 5.</ref> Other assorted avian prey has included a few species of [[waterfowl]], most available [[Columbiformes|pigeons and doves]], [[Common cuckoo|cuckoos]], [[Plain swift|swifts]], [[Little grebe|grebes]], [[Rail (bird)|rails]], nearly 20 assorted [[Charadriiformes|shorebirds]], [[Procellariiformes|tubenoses]], [[Eurasian hoopoe|hoopoes]], [[European bee-eater|bee-eaters]] and several types of [[woodpecker]]. Birds with more conspicuous or open nesting areas or habits are more likely to have fledglings or nestlings attacked, such as water birds, while those with more secluded or inaccessible nests, such as pigeons/doves and woodpeckers, adults are more likely to be hunted.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/><ref name= Bijlsma/><ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Palomar/><ref name= Swann/><ref>Monteiro, L. R., & Furness, R. W. (1998). ''Speciation through temporal segregation of Madeiran storm petrel (Oceanodroma castro) populations in the Azores?'' Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 353(1371), 945–953.</ref><ref>Ramos, J. A., Moniz, Z., Solá, E., & Monteiro, L. R. (2003). ''Reproductive measures and chick provisioning of Cory's Shearwater Calonectris diomedea borealis in the Azores''. Bird Study, 50(1), 47–54.</ref><ref>Hoi, H., Hoi, C., Kristofik, J., & Darolova, A. (2002). ''Reproductive success decreases with colony size in the European bee-eater''. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 14(2), 99–110.</ref>

===Reptiles and amphibians===
[[File:Buzzard caught an Aesculapian Snake but flew away and lost his prey, so I could take a photo of the snake.jpg|thumb|A buzzard that caught a large [[green whip snake]] but was flushed from its catch.]]
[[File:Steppe Buzzard, Armenia imported from iNaturalist photo 3325336.jpg|thumb|A steppe buzzard (''B. b. vulpinus'') with a [[Lacerta media|medium lizard]] prey in [[Armenia]].]]
The common buzzard may be the most regular avian predator of reptiles and amphibians in Europe apart from the sections where they are sympatric with the largely snake-eating [[short-toed eagle]].<ref>Martin, J. (1990). ''Amphibians and reptiles as prey of birds in southwestern Europe''. Smithsonian Herpetological Information Service.</ref> In total, the prey spectrum of common buzzards include nearly 50 herpetological prey species. In studies from northern and southern Spain, the leading prey numerically were both reptilian, although in [[Biscay]] (northern Spain) the leading prey (19%) was classified as "unidentified snakes". In [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]], the most numerous prey was the {{cvt|77.2|g}} [[ocellated lizard]] (''Timon lepidus''), at 32.9%. In total, at Biscay and Murcia, reptiles accounted for 30.4% and 35.9% of the prey items, respectively. Findings were similar in a separate study from northeastern Spain, where reptiles amounted to 35.9% of prey.<ref name= Zuberogoitia/><ref name= Manosa/><ref>Bustamante, J. (1985). ''Alimentación del ratonero común (Buteo buteo, L. 1758) en el Norte de Espana''. Donana, Acta Vertebrata, 12, 51–62.</ref> In [[Bari]], Italy, reptiles were the main prey, making up almost exactly half of the biomass, led by the large [[green whip snake]] (''Hierophis viridiflavus''), at 24.2% of food mass.<ref name= Scillitani/> In [[Stavropol Krai]], Russia, the {{cvt|20|g}} [[sand lizard]] (''Lacerta agilis'') was the main prey at 23.7% of 55 prey items.<ref name= Chernichko/> The {{cvt|16|g}} [[Anguis fragilis|slowworm]] (''Anguis fragilis''), a legless lizard, became the most numerous prey for the buzzards of southern Norway in low vole years, amounting to 21.3% of 244 prey items in 1993 and were also common even in the peak vole year of 1994 (19% of 332 prey items).<ref name= Selas2/> More or less any snake in Europe is potential prey and the buzzard has been known to be uncharacteristically bold in going after and overpowering large snakes such as [[Elaphe|rat snake]]s, ranging up to nearly {{cvt|1.5|m}} in length, and healthy, large [[Vipera|vipers]] despite the danger of being struck by such prey.<ref name= Selas2/><ref>Meek, R. (2013). ''Post hibernation movements in an aspic viper, Vipera aspis''. Herpetological Bulletin, 125, 22–24.</ref><ref>Ettling, J. A., Aghasyan, L. A., Aghasyan, A. L., & Parker, P. G. (2013). ''Spatial ecology of Armenian Vipers, Montivipera raddei, in a human-modified landscape''. Copeia, 2013(1), 64–71.</ref><ref>Spellerberg, I. F. (1975). ''The grass snake in Britain''. Oryx, 13(2), 179–184.</ref> However, in at least one case, the corpse of a female buzzard was found envenomed over the body of an [[European adder|adder]] that it had killed.<ref>Guthrie, J. E. (1932). ''Snakes versus birds; birds versus snakes''. The Wilson Bulletin, 44(2), 88–113.</ref> In some parts of range, the common buzzard acquires the habit of taking many frogs and toads.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> This was the case in the [[Mogilev Region]] of [[Belarus]] where the {{cvt|23|g}} [[moor frog]] (''Rana arvalis'') was the major prey (28.5%) over several years, followed by other frogs and toads amounting to 39.4% of the diet over the years.<ref name= Chernichko/> In central [[Scotland]], the {{cvt|46|g}} [[common toad]] (''Bufo bufo'') was the most numerous prey species, accounting for 21.7% of 263 prey items, while the [[common frog]] (''Rana temporaria'') made up a further 14.7% of the diet.<ref name= Swan/> Frogs made up about 10% of the diet in central [[Poland]] as well.<ref name= Pinowski/>

===Invertebrates and other prey===
When common buzzards feed on invertebrates, these are chiefly [[earthworm]]s, [[beetle]]s and [[caterpillar]]s in Europe and largely seemed to be preyed on by juvenile buzzards with less refined hunting skills or in areas with mild winters and ample swarming or social insects. In most dietary studies, invertebrates are at best a minor supplemental contributor to the buzzard's diet.<ref name= Cramp/><ref name= Sotnar/> Nonetheless, roughly a dozen beetle species have found in the foods of buzzards from [[Ukraine]] alone.<ref name= Redinov/> In winter in northeastern Spain, it was found that the buzzards switched largely from the vertebrate prey typically taken during spring and summer to a largely [[insect]]-based diet. Most of this prey was unidentified but the most frequently identified were [[European mantis]] (''Mantis religiosa'') and [[European mole cricket]] (''Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa'').<ref name= Manosa/> In [[Ukraine]], 30.8% of the food by number was found to be [[insect]]s.<ref name= Redinov/> Especially in winter quarters such as southern Africa, common buzzards are often attracted to swarming [[locust]]s and other orthopterans.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Steyn/> In this way the steppe buzzard may mirror a similar long-distance migrant from the Americas, the [[Swainson's hawk]], which feeds its young largely on nutritious vertebrates but switches to a largely insect-based once the reach their distant wintering grounds in [[South America]].<ref name= Bildstein/> In [[Eritrea]], 18 returning migrant steppe buzzards were seen to feed together on swarms of [[grasshopper]]s.<ref>Ash, C. P., & Atkins, J. D. (2009). ''Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: an atlas of distribution''. A&C Black.</ref> For wintering steppe buzzards in [[Zimbabwe]], one source went so far as to refer to them as primarily insectivorous, apparently being somewhat locally specialized to feeding on [[termite]]s.<ref>Irwin, M. P. S. (1981). ''The birds of Zimbabwe''. Quest Pub.</ref> Stomach contents in buzzards from [[Malawi]] apparently consisted largely of [[grasshopper]]s (alternately with [[lizard]]s).<ref>Long, R. C. (1960). ''The birds of the Port Herald District.(Part I)''. Ostrich, 31(3), 85–104.</ref> [[Fish]] tend to be the rarest class of prey found in the common buzzard's foods. There are a couple cases of predation of fish detected in the [[Netherlands]], while elsewhere they have been known to have fed upon [[European eel|eels]] and [[Common carp|carp]].<ref name= Bijlsma/><ref>Neuvel, J. & Winters, B. (1987). ''[Buzzard Buteo buteo eats eel]''. Limosa, 60: 149.</ref><ref>Maczkowski, K. & Tryjanowski, P. (1993). ''Carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the food of buzzard (Buteo buteo)''. Przeglad Przyrodniczy, 42: 76.</ref>

===Interspecies predatory relationships===
[[File:White-tailed Eagle with 2 Buzzards.jpg|thumb|A juvenile [[white-tailed eagle]] being [[Mobbing (animal behavior)|mobbed]] by a pair of common buzzards over the [[Canna, Scotland|Isle of Canna]], as the eagle will sometimes prey on the buzzard.]]
Common buzzards co-occur with dozens of other raptorial birds through their breeding, resident and wintering grounds. There may be many other birds that broadly overlap in prey selection to some extent. Furthermore, their preference for interfaces of forest and field is used heavily by many birds of prey. Some of the most similar species by diet are the [[common kestrel]] (''Falco tinniculus''), [[hen harrier]] (''Circus cyaenus'') and [[lesser spotted eagle]] (''Clanga clanga''), not to mention nearly every European species of owl, as all but two may locally prefer [[rodent]]s such as [[vole]]s in their diets.<ref>Davis, T. A. W. (1960). ''Kestrel pellets at a winter roost''. Brit. Birds, 53(7), 281–284.</ref><ref>Redpath, S. M., Clarke, R., Madders, M., & Thirgood, S. J. (2015). ''Assessing raptor diet: comparing pellets, prey remains, and observational data at hen harrier nests''.</ref><ref>Lohmus, A., & Väli, Ü. (2004). ''The effects of habitat quality and female size on the productivity of the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina in the light of the alternative prey hypothesis''. Journal of Avian Biology, 35(5), 455–464.</ref><ref>Meunier, F. D., Verheyden, C., & Jouventin, P. (2000). ''Use of roadsides by diurnal raptors in agricultural landscapes''. Biological Conservation, 92(3), 291–298.</ref><ref name= Bergman>Bergman, G. (1961). ''The food of birds of prey and owls in Fenno-Scandia''. British Birds, 54, 307–320.</ref> Diet overlap was found to be extensive between buzzards and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes'') in [[Poland]], with 61.9% of prey selection overlapping by species although the dietary breadth of the fox was broader and more opportunistic. Both fox dens and buzzard roosts were found to be significantly closer to high vole areas relative to the overall environment here.<ref>Jankowiak, L., & Tryjanowski, P. (2013). ''Cooccurrence and food niche overlap of two common predators (red fox Vulpes vulpes and common buzzard Buteo buteo) in an agricultural landscape''. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 37(2), 157–162.</ref> The only other widely found European ''Buteo'', the rough-legged buzzard, comes to winter extensively with common buzzards. It was found in southern Sweden, habitat, hunting and prey selection often overlapped considerably. Rough-legged buzzards appear to prefer slightly more open habitat and took slightly fewer [[Apodemus|wood mice]] than common buzzard. Roughlegs also hover much more frequently and are more given to hunting in high winds. The two buzzards are aggressive towards one another and excluded each other from winter feeding territories in similar ways to the way they exclude conspecifics. In northern [[Germany]], the buffer of their habitat preferences apparently accounted for the lack of effect on each other's occupancy between the two buzzard species.<ref>Sylven, M. (1978). ''Interspecific relations between sympatrically wintering Common Buzzards Buteo buteo and Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus''. Ornis Scandinavica, 197–206.</ref><ref name="Schindler"/> Despite a broad range of overlap, very little is known about the ecology of common and [[long-legged buzzard]]s where they co-exist. However, it can be inferred from the long-legged species preference for predation on differing prey, such as [[Spalax|blind mole-rat]]s, [[ground squirrel]]s, [[hamster]]s and [[Meriones (genus)|gerbils]], from the voles usually preferred by the common species, that serious competition for food is unlikely.<ref>Kassinis, N. (2009). ''Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus rufinus breeding distribution and abundance in Cyprus''. Avocetta, 33, 75–78.</ref><ref>Bakaloudis, D. E., Iezekiel, S., Vlachos, C. G., Bontzorlos, V. A., Papakosta, M., & Birrer, S. (2012). ''Assessing bias in diet methods for the Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus''. Journal of Arid Environments, 77, 59–65.</ref>

A more direct negative effect has been found in buzzard's co-existence with [[northern goshawk]] (''Accipiter gentilis''). Despite the considerable discrepancy of the two species dietary habits, habitat selection in Europe is largely similar between buzzards and goshawks. Goshawks are slightly larger than buzzards and are more powerful, agile and generally more aggressive birds, and so they are considered dominant. In studies from Germany and Sweden, buzzards were found to be less disturbance sensitive than goshawks but were probably displaced into inferior nesting spots by the dominant goshawks. The exposure of buzzards to a dummy goshawk was found to decrease breeding success whereas there was no effect on breeding goshawks when they were exposed to a dummy buzzard.<ref>Krüger, O. (2002). ''Analysis of nest occupancy and nest reproduction in two sympatric raptors: common buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis''. Ecography, 25(5), 523–532.</ref><ref>Krüger, O. (2002). ''Interactions between common buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis: trade‐offs revealed by a field experiment''. Oikos, 96(3), 441–452.</ref><ref>Taylor, K., Hudson, R., & Horne, G. (1988). ''Buzzard breeding distribution and abundance in Britain and Northern Ireland in 1983''. Bird Study, 35(2), 109–118.</ref> In many cases, in [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]], goshawks displaced buzzards from their nests to take them over for themselves.<ref>Kostrzewa, A. (1991). ''Interspecific interference competition in three European raptor species''. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 3(2), 127–143.</ref><ref name= Hakkarainen>Hakkarainen, H., Mykrä, S., Kurki, S., Tornberg, R., & Jungell, S. (2004). ''Competitive interactions among raptors in boreal forests''. Oecologia, 141(3), 420–424.</ref> In [[Poland]], buzzards productivity was correlated to prey population variations, particularly voles which could vary from 10 to 80 per hectare, whereas goshawks were seemingly unaffected by prey variations; buzzards were found here to number 1.73 pair per {{cvt|10|sqkm}} against goshawk 1.63 pair per {{cvt|10|sqkm}}.<ref>Goszczyński, J. (1997). ''Density and productivity of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo and goshawk Accipiter gentilis populations in Rogów, Central Poland''. Acta Ornithologica, 32(2), 149–155.</ref> In contrast, the slightly larger counterpart of buzzards in North America, the [[red-tailed hawk]] (which is also slightly larger than American goshawks, the latter averaging smaller than European ones) are more similar in diet to goshawks there. Redtails are not invariably dominated by goshawks and are frequently able to outcompete them by virtue of greater dietary and habitat flexibility. Furthermore, red-tailed hawks are apparently equally capable of killing goshawks as goshawks are of killing them (killings are more one-sided in buzzard-goshawk interactions in favour of the latter).<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Angela E. |last1=Gatto|first2=Teryl G. |last2=Grubb |first3=Carol L.|last3= Chambers |year=2006 |title=Red-tailed Hawk dietary overlap with Northern Goshawks on the Kaibab Plateau, Arizona |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=439–444 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/node/54211}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Boal, C. W. |year=2005|title=Productivity and mortality of northern goshawks in Minnesota|journal=J. Raptor Res.|volume= 39|issue=3|pages= 222–228|bibcode=2005JRapR..39..222B |url=https://sora.unm.edu/node/54189}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Luttich, S., Rusch, D. H., Meslow, E. C., & Keith, L. B. |title=Ecology of Red-Tailed Hawk Predation in Alberta|journal=Ecology|volume=51|issue=2|pages=190–203|doi=10.2307/1933655|jstor=1933655|year=1970|bibcode=1970Ecol...51..190L }}</ref> Other raptorial birds, including many of similar or mildly larger size than common buzzards themselves, may dominate or displace the buzzard, especially with aims to take over their nests. Species such as the [[black kite]] (''Milvus migrans''), [[booted eagle]] (''Hieraeetus pennatus'') and the [[lesser spotted eagle]] have been known to displace actively nesting buzzards, although in some cases the buzzards may attempt to defend themselves. The broad range of accipitrids that take over buzzard nests is somewhat unusual. More typically, common buzzards are victims of nest parasitism to [[owl]]s and [[falcon]]s, as neither of these other kinds of raptorial birds builds their own nests, but these may regularly take up occupancy on already abandoned or alternate nests rather than ones the buzzards are actively using.<ref name= Sergio/><ref name= Costa/><ref>Sergio, F., & Boto, A. (1999). ''Nest dispersion, diet, and breeding success of Black Kites (Milvus migrans) in the Italian pre-Alps''. Journal of Raptor Research, 33, 207–217.</ref><ref>Meyburg, B. U. (1973). ''Studies of less familiar birds: 172. Lesser Spotted Eagle''. British Birds.</ref> Even with birds not traditionally considered raptorial, such as [[common raven]]s, may compete for nesting sites with buzzards.<ref name="Moore, N. W. 1957">Moore, N. W. (1957). ''The past and present status of the Buzzard in the British Isles''. British Birds, 50, 173–197.</ref> In urban vicinities of southwestern England, it was found that [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus'') were harassing buzzards so persistently, in many cases resulting in injury or death for the buzzards, the attacks tending to peak during the falcon's breeding seasons and tend to be focused on subadult buzzards.<ref>Dixon, N., & Gibbs, A. (2018). ''Extreme territorial aggression by urban Peregrine Falcons toward Common Buzzards in South-West England''. Ornis Hungarica, 26(2), 232-242.</ref> Despite often being dominated in nesting site confrontations by even similarly sized raptors, buzzards appear to be bolder in direct competition over food with other raptors outside of the context of breeding, and has even been known to displace larger birds of prey such as [[red kite]]s (''Milvus milvus'') and female buzzards may also dominate male goshawks (which are much smaller than the female goshawk) at disputed kills.<ref name= Hakkarainen/><ref>O'Connor, T. P. (1993). ''Birds and the scavenger niche''. Archaeofauna, (2).</ref>
[[File:Rupfung eines Mäusebussard.jpg|thumb|left|The remains of a common buzzard that was preyed on by a [[Eurasian eagle-owl]].]]
Common buzzards are occasionally threatened by predation by other raptorial birds. Northern goshawks have been known to have preyed upon buzzards in a few cases.<ref name= Sergio2>Sergio, F., & Hiraldo, F. (2008). ''Intraguild predation in raptor assemblages: a review birds''. Ibis, 150, 132–145.</ref><ref name= Bjorklund>Björklund, H., Santangeli, A., Blanchet, F. G., Huitu, O., Lehtoranta, H., Lindén, H., Valkama, J. & Laaksonen, T. (2016). ''Intraguild predation and competition impacts on a subordinate predator birds''. Oecologia, 181(1), 257–269.</ref> Much larger raptors are known to have killed a few buzzards as well, including [[steppe eagle]]s (''Aquila nipalensis'') on migrating steppe buzzards in [[Israel]]. Further instances of predation on buzzards have involved [[Golden eagle|golden]], [[Eastern imperial eagle|eastern imperial]] (''Aquila heliaca''), [[Bonelli's eagle|Bonelli's]] (''Aquila fasciata'') and [[white-tailed eagle]]s (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') in Europe.<ref>Weiss, N., & Yosef, R. (2010). ''Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) Hunts a Eurasian Buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus) While in Migration over Eilat, Israel''. Journal of Raptor Research, 44(1), 77–79.</ref><ref>Todd, D.M. (1980). ''Golden Eagle killing buzzard''. British Birds, 73: 536–537.</ref><ref>Chavko, J., Danko, Š., Obuch, J., & Mihók, J. (2007). ''The food of the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Slovakia''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 1, 1–18.</ref><ref>Horváth, M., Solti, B., Fatér, I., Juhász, T., Haraszthy, L., Szitta, T., Bállok, Z. & Pásztory-Kovács, S. (2018). ''Temporal changes in the diet composition of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Hungary''. Ornis Hungarica, 26(1), 1–26.</ref><ref>Gradoz, P. (1996). ''[Common Buzzard Buteo buteo captured in flight by a White-tailed Eagle Haliaetus albicilla.]'' 62: 165–166.</ref><ref>Resano, J., Bayle, P., Real, J., Hernández, A., Vincent-Martin, N. & Ravayrol, A. (2012). ''Analyse du régime alimentaire de l’Aigle de Bonelli Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot, 1822) pendant la saison de reproduction 2010 en France''. Université de Barcelone – Equip de Biologia de la Conservació, 1: 95–101.</ref> Besides preying on adult buzzard, white-tailed eagles have been known to raise buzzards with their own young. These are most likely cases of eagles carrying off young buzzard nestlings with the intention of predation but, for unclear reasons, not killing them. Instead the mother eagle comes to brood the young buzzard. Despite the difference of the two species diets, white-tailed eagles are surprisingly successful at raising young buzzards (which are conspicuously much smaller than their own nestlings) to fledging.<ref>Dementavičius, D. (2004). ''Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla): breeding parasitism or atypical feeding behaviour?'' Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 14(1), 76–79.</ref><ref>Literak, I., & Mraz, J. (2011). ''Adoptions of young common buzzards in white-tailed sea eagle nests''. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 123(1), 174–176.</ref> Studies in [[Lithuania]] of white-tailed eagle diets found that predation on common buzzards was more frequent than anticipated, with 36 buzzard remains found in 11 years of study of the summer diet of the white-tailed eagles. While nestling buzzards were multiple times more vulnerable to predation than adult buzzards in the Lithuanian data, the region's buzzards expelled considerable time and energy during the late nesting period trying to protect their nests.<ref>Kamarauskaitė, A., Dementavičius, D., Skuja, S., Dagys, M., & Treinys, R. (2020). ''Interaction between the White-tailed Eagle and Common Buzzard estimated by diet analysis and brood defence behaviour''. Ornis Fennica, 97(1), 26-37.</ref><ref>Dementavičius, D., Rumbutis, S., Virbickas, T., Vaitkuvienė, D., Dagys, M., & Treinys, R. (2020). ''Spatial and temporal variations in the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla breeding diet revealed by prey remains''. Bird Study, 67(2), 206-216.</ref> The most serious predator of common buzzards, however, is almost certainly the [[Eurasian eagle-owl]] (''Bubo bubo''). This is a very large owl with a mean body mass about three to four times greater than that of a buzzard. The eagle-owl, despite often taking small mammals that broadly overlap with those selected by buzzards, is considered a "super-predator" that is a major threat to nearly all co-existing raptorial birds, capably destroying whole broods of other raptorial birds and dispatching adult raptors even as large as eagles. Due to their large numbers in edge habitats, common buzzards frequently feature heavily in the eagle-owl's diet. Eagle-owls, as will some other large owls, also readily expropriate the nests of buzzards.<ref name= Sergio2/><ref>Lourenço, R., Rabaça, J. E., Delgado, M. D. M., & Penteriani, V. (2009). ''Intraguild predation by a European top predator–the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo)''.</ref><ref>Chakarov, N., & Krüger, O. (2010). ''Mesopredator release by an emergent superpredator: a natural experiment of predation in a three level guild''. PLOS ONE, 5(12), e15229.</ref> In the [[Czech Republic]] and in [[Luxembourg]], the buzzard was the third and fifth most frequent prey species for eagle-owls, respectively.<ref>Zemanová, K. (2009). ''Potrava výra velkého na střední Moravě''.</ref><ref name= Bayle>Bayle, P., & Schauls, R. (2011). ''Biologie de quatre couples de grand-duc d’Europe Bubo bubo au Luxembourg''. Bull. Soc. Nat. luxemb, 112, 51.</ref> The reintroduction of eagle-owls to sections of [[Germany]] has been found to have a slight deleterious effect on the local occupancy of common buzzards. The only sparing factor is the temporal difference (the buzzard nesting later in the year than the eagle-owl) and buzzards may locally be able to avoid nesting near an active eagle-owl family.<ref>Schindler, S. (2002). ''Territoriality and habitat-use of wintering Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany'' (Doctoral dissertation, uniwien).</ref> As the ecology of the wintering population is relatively little studied, a similar very large owl at the top of the avian food chain, the [[Verreaux's eagle-owl]] (''Bubo lacteus''), is the only known predator of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa.<ref>Avery, G., Robertson, A. S., Palmer, N. G., & Prins, A. J. (1985). ''Prey of giant eagle owls in the de Hoop nature reserve, Cape province, and some observations on hunting strategy''. Ostrich, 56(1–3), 117–122.</ref> Despite not being known predators of buzzards, other large, vole-eating owls are known to displace or to be avoided by nesting buzzards, such as [[great grey owl]]s (''Strix nebulosa'') and [[Ural owl]]s (''Strix uralensis'').<ref name= Bjorklund/><ref>Byshnev, I.I. (2002). ''Interesting case of aggressive interaction between Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and Ural Owl (Strix uralensis)''. Subbuteo, 5: 46.</ref> Unlike with large birds of prey, next to nothing is known of mammalian predators of common buzzards, despite up to several nestlings and fledglings being likely depredated by mammals.<ref name= Brown/><ref name= Austin>Austin, G. E., & Houston, D. C. (1997). ''The breeding performance of the Buzzard Buteo buteo in Argyll, Scotland and a comparison with other areas in Britain''. Bird Study, 44(2), 146–154.</ref><ref name= Tubbs>Tubbs, C. R. (1972). ''Analysis of nest record cards for the Buzzard''. Bird Study, 19(2), 97–104.</ref>

Common buzzards themselves rarely present a threat to other raptorial birds but may occasionally kill a few of those of smaller size. The buzzard is a known predator of {{cvt|237|g}} [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]]s (''Accipiter nisus''), {{cvt|184|g}} [[common kestrel]] and {{cvt|152|g}} [[lesser kestrel]] (''Falco naumanni'') .<ref name= Steiner/><ref>Sarà, M., Campobello, D., & Zanca, L. (2012). ''Effects of nest and colony features on lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) reproductive success''. Avian Biology Research, 5(4), 209–217.</ref> Perhaps surprisingly, given the nocturnal habits of this prey, the group of raptorial birds the buzzard is known to hunt most extensively is owls.<ref>Mikkola, H. (1976). ''Owls killing and killed by other owls and raptors in Europe''. British Birds, 69, 144–154.</ref> Known owl prey has included {{cvt|419|g}} [[Western barn owl]]s (''Tyto alba''), {{cvt|92|g}} [[European scops owl]]s (''Otus scops''), {{cvt|475|g}} [[tawny owl]]s (''Strix aluco''), {{cvt|169|g}} [[little owl]]s (''Athene noctua''), {{cvt|138|g}} [[boreal owl]]s (''Aegolius funereus''), {{cvt|286|g}} [[long-eared owl]]s (''Asio otus'') and {{cvt|355|g}} [[short-eared owl]]s (''Asio flammeus'').<ref name= Sotnar/><ref name= Manosa/><ref name= Swann/><ref name= Steiner/><ref>Van Nieuwenhuyse, D., Genot, J. C., & Johnson, D. H. (Eds.). (2008). ''The little owl: conservation, ecology and behavior of Athene noctua''. Cambridge University Press, The Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Road Cambridge CB 2 2 RU UK.</ref><ref>Barnard. C.C. (1981). ''Buzzard preying on Short-eared Owl''. British Birds, 74: 226.</ref> Despite their relatively large size, tawny owls are known to avoid buzzards as there are several records of them preying upon the owls.<ref name= Bijlsma/><ref>Voous, K.H. 1988. ''Owls of the Northern Hemisphere''. The MIT Press, 0262220350.</ref><ref>Sunde, P. (2005). ''Predators control post‐fledging mortality in tawny owls, Strix aluco''. Oikos, 110(3), 461–472.</ref>