Editing Cinchona (section)

===Widespread cultivation===
The bark was very valuable to Europeans in expanding their access to and exploitation of resources in distant colonies and at home. Bark gathering was often environmentally destructive, destroying huge expanses of trees for their bark, with difficult conditions for low wages that did not allow the indigenous bark gatherers to settle debts even upon death.<ref>{{cite book | author=Taussig, M.|title=''Shamanism, Colonialism and the Wild Man''| url=https://archive.org/details/shamanismcolonia0000taus| url-access=registration|year=1987|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226790121}}</ref>

Further exploration of the [[Amazon Basin]] and the economy of trade in various species of the bark in the 18th century is captured by Lardner Gibbon:

<blockquote>...&nbsp;this bark was first gathered in quantities in 1849, though known for many years. The best quality is not quite equal to that of Yungas, but only second to it. There are four other classes of inferior bark, for some of which the bank pays fifteen dollars per quintal. The best, by law, is worth fifty-four dollars. The freight to Arica is seventeen dollars the mule load of three quintals. Six thousand quintals of bark have already been gathered from Yuracares. The bank was established in the year 1851. [[w:Haenke|Mr. [Thaddäus] Haenke]] mentioned the existence of cinchona bark on his visit to Yuracares in 1796
:— ''Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon'', by Lieut. [[Lardner Gibbon]], USN. Vol. II, Ch. 6, pp.&nbsp;146–47.</blockquote>

It was estimated that the British Empire incurred direct losses of 52 to 62 million pounds a year due to malaria sickness each year. It was therefore of great importance to secure the supply of the cure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cowan|first=J. M.|date=1929|title=Cinchona in the Empire. Progress and prospects of its cultivation|jstor=42598886|journal=Empire Forestry Journal|volume=8|issue=1|pages=45–53}}</ref> In 1860, a British expedition to South America led by [[Clements Markham]] smuggled back cinchona seeds and plants, which were introduced in several areas of British India and Sri Lanka. In India, it was planted in Ootacamund by [[William Graham McIvor]]. In Sri Lanka, it was planted in the [[Hakgala Botanical Garden]] in January 1861.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hakgala garden|url=http://www.agridept.gov.lk/institutes_sub_more.php?id=123&mMenu=Botanic%20Gardens&sMenu=National%20Botanic%20Gardens%20%28NBG%20%29|publisher=Department of Agriculture, Government of Sri Lanka|access-date=11 June 2010}}{{Dead link|date=July 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[James Taylor (Ceylon)|James Taylor]], the pioneer of tea planting in Sri Lanka, was one of the pioneers of cinchona cultivation.<ref name="timesonline">{{cite news|last=Fry|first=Carolyn|title=The Kew Gardens of Sri Lanka|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article1289534.ece|work=Travel|publisher=Timesonline, UK|access-date=11 June 2010 | location=London | date=6 January 2007}}{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> By 1883, about {{convert|64000|acre|km2}} were in cultivation in Sri Lanka, with exports reaching a peak of 15 million pounds in 1886. The cultivation (initially of ''[[Cinchona succirubra|C. succirubra]]'' (now ''C. pubescens'') and later of ''C. calisaya''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gammie|first=J. A.|date=1888|title=Manufacture of Quinine in India|journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)|volume=1888|issue=18|pages=139–144|doi=10.2307/4114959|jstor=4114959}}</ref>) was extended through the work of [[George King (botanist)|George King]] and others into the hilly terrain of [[Darjeeling District]] of [[West Bengal|Bengal]]. Cinchona factories were established at Naduvattam in the Nilgiris and at [[Mungpoo]], Darjeeling, West Bengal. Quinologists were appointed to oversee the extraction of alkaloids with John Broughton in the Nilgiris and C.H. Wood at Darjeeling. Others in the position included David Hooper and John Eliot Howard.<ref name="Williams-1962" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1931|title=Introduction of Cinchona to India|jstor=4102564|journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)|volume=1931|issue=3|pages=113–117|doi=10.2307/4102564}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=A manual of ''Cinchona'' cultivation in India|author=King, George|year=1876| publisher=Government Press|place= Calcutta|url=https://archive.org/details/b24906682}}</ref>
[[File:Cinchona.pubescens03.jpg|thumb|''[[Cinchona pubescens|C. pubescens]]'' fruit]]

In 1865, "New Virginia" and "Carlota Colony" were established in [[Mexico]] by [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]], a former Confederate in the [[American Civil War]]. Postwar Confederates were enticed there by Maury, now the "Imperial Commissioner of Immigration" for [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Emperor Maximillian]] of Mexico, and Archduke of Habsburg. All that survives of those two colonies are the flourishing groves of ''cinchonas'' established by Maury using seeds purchased from England. These seeds were the first to be introduced into Mexico.<ref>Sources: ''Life of Maury'' by Diane Corbin and ''Scientist of the Sea'' by Frances Leigh Williams.</ref>

The cultivation of cinchona led from the 1890s to a decline in the price of quinine, but the quality and production of raw bark by the Dutch in Indonesia led them to dominate world markets. The producers of processed drugs in Europe (especially Germany<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Hoogte|first1=Arjo Roersch|last2=Pieters|first2=Toine|date=2015|title=Science, industry and the colonial state: a shift from a German- to a Dutch-controlled cinchona and quinine cartel (1880–1920)|journal=History and Technology|volume=31|pages=2–36|doi=10.1080/07341512.2015.1068005|hdl=1874/323280 |s2cid=153489022|hdl-access=free}}</ref>), however, bargained and caused fluctuations in prices, which led to a Dutch-led Cinchona Agreement in 1913 that ensured a fixed price for producers. A ''[[Kina Bureau]]'' in Amsterdam regulated this trade.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2013.10.002|pmid=24287061|title=Building the world's supply of quinine: Dutch colonialism and the origins of a global pharmaceutical industry|journal=Endeavour|volume=38|issue=1|pages=8–18|year=2014|last1=Goss|first1=Andrew}}</ref>

During [[World War II]], the Japanese conquered Java and the United States lost access to the cinchona plantations that supplied war-critical quinine medication. Botanical expeditions called [[Cinchona Missions]]<ref name=Cinchona-SI>{{cite web | url = http://botany.si.edu/colls/expeditions/expedition_page.cfm?ExpedName=17 | title = Cinchona Missions Expedition (1942–1944) | work = [[National Museum of Natural History]]: Historical Expeditions | publisher = [[Smithsonian Institution]] | access-date = 25 March 2017}}</ref> were launched between 1942 and 1944 to explore promising areas of South America in an effort to locate cinchona species that contained quinine and could be harvested for quinine production.<ref name=Cinchona-SI /> As well as being ultimately successful in their primary aim, these expeditions also identified new species of plants<ref name=Cinchona-SI /> and created a new chapter in international relations between the United States and other nations in the [[Americas]].<ref name= Dynamis>{{cite journal | title = The Cinchona Program (1940–1945): science and imperialism in the exploitation of a medicinal plant | first = Nicolás | last = Cuvi | journal = Dynamis | issn = 0211-9536 | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 183–206 | publisher = Granada | year = 2011| doi = 10.4321/S0211-95362011000100009 | pmid = 21936230 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10481/77458 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>