Editing African Americans (section)

===Education===
{{Main|History of African-American education}}
[[File:Former Slave Reading.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Former slave reading, 1870]]

During slavery, [[Anti-literacy laws in the United States|anti-literacy laws]] were enacted in the US that prohibited education for Black people. Slave owners saw literacy as a threat to the institution of slavery. As a North Carolina statute stated, "Teaching slaves to read and write, tends to excite dissatisfaction in their minds, and to produce insurrection and [[slave rebellion|rebellion]]."<ref>{{cite book|title=An Inquiry Into the Character and Tendency of the American Colonization, and American Anti-slavery Societies|author-link=William Jay (jurist)|first=William|last=Jay|year=1835|edition=2nd|location=New York|publisher=[[Dudley Leavitt (publisher)|Leavitt, Lord & Co.]]|url=https://archive.org/details/aninquiryintoch05jaygoog/page/n6/mode/2up}}</ref>

When slavery was finally abolished in 1865, public educational systems were expanding across the country. By 1870, around seventy-four institutions in the south provided a form of advanced education for African American students. By 1900, over a hundred programs at these schools provided training for Black professionals, including teachers. Many of the students at Fisk University, including the young [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], taught school during the summers to support their studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fultz |first1=Michael |title=Determination and Persistence: Building the African American Teacher Corps through Summer and Intermittent Teaching, 1860s–1890s |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=February 2021 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=4–34 |doi=10.1017/heq.2020.65|doi-access=free }}</ref>

African Americans were very concerned to provide quality education for their children, but White supremacy limited their ability to participate in educational policymaking on the political level. State governments soon moved to undermine their citizenship by restricting their right to vote. By the late 1870s, Blacks were disenfranchised and segregated across the American South.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=James D. |title=The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 |date=1988 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=0-8078-1793-7}}</ref> White politicians in Mississippi and other states withheld financial resources and supplies from Black schools. Nevertheless, the presence of Black teachers, and their engagement with their communities both inside and outside the classroom, ensured that Black students had access to education despite these external constraints.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Span |first1=Christopher M. |title=From Cotton Field to Schoolhouse: African American Education in Mississippi, 1862–1875 |date=2009 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ladson-Billings |first1=Gloria |last2=Anderson |first2=James D. |title=Policy Dialogue: Black Teachers of the Past, Present, and Future |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=February 3, 2021 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=94–102 |doi=10.1017/heq.2020.68|doi-access=free }}</ref>

During [[World War II]], demands for unity and racial tolerance on the home front provided an opening for the first Black history curriculum in the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Field |first1=Sherry |title=Intercultural Education and Negro History during the Second World War |journal=Journal of Midwest History of Education Society |date=1995 |volume=22 |pages=75–85}}</ref> For example, during the early 1940s, Madeline Morgan, a Black teacher in the Chicago public schools, created a curriculum for students in grades one through eight highlighting the contributions of Black people to the history of the United States. At the close of the war, Chicago's Board of Education downgraded the curriculum's status from mandatory to optional.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dennis |first1=Ashley D. |title="The Intellectual Emancipation of the Negro": Madeline Morgan and the Mandatory Black History Curriculum in Chicago during World War II |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=May 2022 |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=136–160 |doi=10.1017/heq.2022.2|s2cid=248406635 }}</ref>

Predominantly Black schools for kindergarten through twelfth grade students were common throughout the US before the 1970s. By 1972, however, desegregation efforts meant that only 25% of Black students were in schools with more than 90% non-White students. However, since then, a trend towards re-segregation affected communities across the country: by 2011, 2.9 million African American students were in such overwhelmingly minority schools, including 53% of Black students in school districts that were formerly under desegregation orders.<ref>Kozol, J. [https://www.thenation.com/doc/20051219/kozol "Overcoming Apartheid", ''The Nation''. December 19, 2005. p. 26] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325161054/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051219/kozol |date=March 25, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.propublica.org/article/segregation-now-full-text|title = Segregation Now|last = Hannah-Jones|first = Nikole|date = April 16, 2014|work = ProPublica|access-date = December 14, 2015|archive-date = December 13, 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151213193910/https://www.propublica.org/article/segregation-now-full-text|url-status = live}}</ref>

As late as 1947, about one third of African Americans over 65 were considered to lack the literacy to read and write their own names. By 1969, [[illiteracy]] as it had been traditionally defined, had been largely eradicated among younger African Americans.<ref>Public Information Office, United States Census Bureau. [https://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2000/cb00-151.html High School Completions at All-Time High, Census Bureau Reports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327134138/http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2000/cb00-151.html |date=March 27, 2010 }}. September 15, 2000.</ref>

[[File:Neil deGrasse Tyson - NAC Nov 2005.jpg|thumb|upright|Astrophysicist [[Neil deGrasse Tyson]] is director of New York City's [[Hayden Planetarium]]]]
Between 1995 and 2009, freshmen college enrollment for African Americans increased by 73 percent and only 15 percent for Whites.<ref>Michael A. Fletcher, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/minorities-and-whites-follow-unequal-college-paths-report-says/2013/07/31/61c18f08-f9f3-11e2-8752-b41d7ed1f685_story.html "Minorities and whites follow unequal college paths, report says"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223225704/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/minorities-and-whites-follow-unequal-college-paths-report-says/2013/07/31/61c18f08-f9f3-11e2-8752-b41d7ed1f685_story.html |date=December 23, 2015 }}, ''The Washington Post'', July 31, 2013.</ref> Black women are enrolled in college more than any other race and gender group, leading all with 9.7% enrolled according to the 2011 US census.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/black-women-become-most-educated-group-in-us-a7063361.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604003454/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/black-women-become-most-educated-group-in-us-a7063361.html |archive-date=June 4, 2016 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|title=Black women become most educated group in US|date=June 3, 2016|access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/school/data/cps/2011/tables.html |title=CPS October 2011 – Detailed Tables |access-date=December 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118080151/http://www.census.gov/hhes/school/data/cps/2011/tables.html |archive-date=January 18, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 
The average high school graduation rate of Blacks in the United States has steadily increased to 71% in 2013.<ref>Allie Bidwell, [https://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/data-mine/2015/03/16/federal-data-show-racial-gap-in-high-school-graduation-rates-is-closing "Racial Gaps in High School Graduation Rates Are Closing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706054212/https://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/data-mine/2015/03/16/federal-data-show-racial-gap-in-high-school-graduation-rates-is-closing |date=July 6, 2017 }}, ''U.S. News'', March 16, 2015.</ref> Separating this statistic into component parts shows it varies greatly depending upon the state and the school district examined. 38% of Black males graduated in the state of New York but in Maine 97% graduated and exceeded the White male graduation rate by 11 percentage points.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Alonso|first1=Andres A.|title=Black Male Graduation Rates|url=https://blackboysreport.org/national-summary/black-male-graduation-rates|website=blackboysreport.org|publisher=The Schott Foundation for Public Education|access-date=September 24, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016154552/http://blackboysreport.org/national-summary/black-male-graduation-rates|archive-date=October 16, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> In much of the southeastern United States and some parts of the southwestern United States the graduation rate of White males was in fact below 70% such as in Florida where 62% of White males graduated from high school. Examining specific school districts paints an even more complex picture. In the Detroit school district, the graduation rate of Black males was 20% but 7% for White males. In the New York City school district 28% of Black males graduate from high school compared to 57% of White males. In Newark County{{Where|date=September 2014}} 76% of Black males graduated compared to 67% for White males. Further academic improvement has occurred in 2015. Roughly 23% of all Blacks have bachelor's degrees. In 1988, 21% of Whites had obtained a bachelor's degree versus 11% of Blacks. In 2015, 23% of Blacks had obtained a bachelor's degree versus 36% of Whites.<ref name="Census Report">{{cite web|last1=Ryan|first1=Camille L.|title=Educational Attainment in the United States|url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20-578.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20-578.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|website=census.gov|publisher=The United States Bureau Of Statistics|access-date=July 22, 2017}}</ref> Foreign born Blacks, 9% of the Black population, made even greater strides. They exceed native born Blacks by 10 percentage points.<ref name="Census Report"/>

[[College Board]], which runs the official college-level [[Advanced Placement|advanced placement]] (AP) programs in American high schools, have has received criticism in recent years that its curricula have focused too much on [[Euro-centric]] history.<ref name="Columbia">{{cite web |title=African Diaspora Advanced Placement Course, Co-developed by Teachers College, Highlighted by Time |url=https://www.tc.columbia.edu/articles/2020/february/african-diaspora-advanced-placement-course-highlighted-by-time-magazine/ |website=columbia.edu |publisher=Columbia University |access-date=7 July 2022 |archive-date=July 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707024842/https://www.tc.columbia.edu/articles/2020/february/african-diaspora-advanced-placement-course-highlighted-by-time-magazine/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, College Board reshaped some curricula among history-based courses to further reflect the [[African diaspora]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gleibermann |first1=Erik |title=New College Board curriculum puts the African diaspora in the spotlight |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/new-college-board-curriculum-puts-the-african-diaspora-in-the-spotlight/2020/09/07/579631c2-ee1b-11ea-b4bc-3a2098fc73d4_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=July 7, 2022 |archive-date=January 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128113036/https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/new-college-board-curriculum-puts-the-african-diaspora-in-the-spotlight/2020/09/07/579631c2-ee1b-11ea-b4bc-3a2098fc73d4_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021, College Board announced it would be piloting an [[AP African American Studies]] course between 2022 and 2024. The course officially launched in August 2024.<ref name="TIG">{{cite conference |title= Teacher Information Guide AP African American Studies Pilot|last= Waters |first= Brandi|date= February 2022 |publisher= College Board|location= Washington, DC|conference= |id=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Adopt AP African American Studies |url=https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-african-american-studies/adopt |website=[[Advanced Placement|AP Central]] |access-date=25 February 2025}}</ref>

In June 2023, the [[Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard|Supreme Court ended race-based affirmative action at American colleges and universities]].  This landmark Supreme Court decision is widely believed to contribute to a decline in African American enrollment at the nation's most selective and prominent colleges and universities, where African American applicants often have, on average, lower standardized test scores and GPAs compared to the overall applicant pool. In response, many of the nation's most popular historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have reported a significant surge in applications and enrollment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.bloomberglaw.com/us-law-week/black-enrollment-drops-at-top-schools-as-affirmative-action-axed |title=Black Enrollment Drops at Top Schools as Affirmative Action Axed |work=Bloomberg Law |first1=Francesca |last1=Maglione |first2=Paulina |last2=Cachero |first3=Ann |last3=Choi |first4=Raeedah |last4=Wahid |date=September 27, 2024 |access-date=April 10, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2024/09/05/diverse-college-enrollment-down-post-affirmative-action-ruling/ |title=Black enrollment drops at UNC after ruling; other schools vary |newspaper=The Washington Post |last=Svluga |first=Susan |date=September 5, 2024 |access-date=April 10, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.highereddive.com/news/hbcus-enrollment-surge-why/710494/ |title=Some HBCUs are seeing enrollment surge. Here's why. |work=Higher Ed Drive |last=McLean |first=Danielle |date=March 19, 2024 |access-date=April 10, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.the74million.org/article/court-documents-racial-preferences-massively-boost-black-hispanic-applicants/ |title=Court Documents: Racial Preferences Massively Boost Black, Hispanic Applicants |work=The74 |last=Mahnken |first=Kevin |date=July 24, 2022 |access-date=April 10, 2025}}</ref>

According to a 2025 study, African Americans have the highest average student debt.  African Americans with [[bachelor's degrees]] owe an average of $52,726 in student loans. Nearly 70% of African Americans took out a loan to fund their undergraduate education.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://educationdata.org/student-loan-debt-by-race |title=Student Loan Debt by Race |last=Hanson |first=Melanie |publisher=Education Data Initiative |date=February 18, 2025 |access-date=May 3, 2025}}</ref>

====Historically Black colleges and universities====
{{Main|Historically black colleges and universities|List of historically black colleges and universities}}
Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), which were founded when [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregated institutions]] of higher learning did not admit African Americans, continue to thrive and educate students of all races today. There are 101 HBCUs representing three percent of the nation's colleges and universities with the majority established in the [[southeastern United States|Southeast]].<ref>[https://www.tnj.com/lists-resources/hbcu "Lists of Historical Black Colleges and Universities"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702201350/http://www.tnj.com/lists-resources/hbcu |date=July 2, 2017 }}, ''The Network Journal''.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hbcu-levers.blogspot.com/p/frequently-asked-questions-faqs-about.html#BestHBCU|title=TECH-Levers: FAQs About HBCUs|access-date=July 18, 2016|archive-date=August 27, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827030310/http://hbcu-levers.blogspot.com/p/frequently-asked-questions-faqs-about.html#BestHBCU|url-status=live}}</ref> HBCUs have been largely responsible for establishing and expanding the African American middle-class by providing more career opportunities for African Americans.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47234239 |title=The story of historically black colleges in the US  |work=BBC News |date=February 15, 2019 |accessdate=January 10, 2022 |archive-date=January 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102193058/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47234239 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/despite-obstacles-black-colleges-are-pipelines-to-the-middle-class-study-finds-heres-its-list-of-the-best/ |title=Despite Obstacles, Black Colleges Are Pipelines to the Middle Class, Study Finds. Here's Its List of the Best. |first=Marc |last=Parry |date=September 30, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]] |access-date=January 2, 2022 |archive-date=January 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102191119/https://www.chronicle.com/article/despite-obstacles-black-colleges-are-pipelines-to-the-middle-class-study-finds-heres-its-list-of-the-best/ |url-status=live }}</ref>