Editing Acadia (section)

===18th century===
[[File:Carte de l Acadie, Isle Royale, et pais voisins.jpg|thumb|Acadia in 1757]]

====Queen Anne's War====
During [[Queen Anne's War]], some Acadians, the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] and the French priests participated again in defending Acadia at its border with New England. They made numerous raids on New England settlements along the border in the [[Northeast Coast Campaign (1703)|Northeast Coast Campaign]] and the famous [[Raid on Deerfield]]. In retaliation, Major Benjamin Church went on his fifth and final expedition to Acadia. He raided present-day Castine, Maine and continued with raids against [[Raid on Grand Pre|Grand Pre]], Pisiquid, and Chignecto. A few years later, defeated in the [[siege of Pemaquid (1696)]], Captain March made an unsuccessful [[Siege of Port Royal (1707)|siege on the Capital of Acadia]], Port Royal (1707). British forces were successful with the [[siege of Port Royal (1710)]], while the Wabanaki Confederacy were successful in the nearby [[Battle of Bloody Creek (1711)]] and continued raids along the Maine frontier.<ref>{{cite book |last=Drake |first=Samuel Adams |title=The Border Wars of New England |pages=264–266 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |date=1897 |url=https://archive.org/stream/borderwarsnew00drakrich#page/264/mode/2up}}</ref>

The 1710 conquest of the Acadian capital of Port Royal during the war was confirmed by the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] of 1713. The British conceded to the French "the island called [[Cape Breton]], as also all others, both in the mouth of the river of St. Lawrence, and in the gulph of the same name", and "all manner of liberty to fortify any place or places there." The French established a fortress at [[Louisbourg]], Cape Breton, to guard the sea approaches to Quebec.<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Peace and Friendship Treaty of Utrecht between France and Great Britain |date=1713 |at=Article XIII}}</ref>

On 23 June 1713, the French residents of Nova Scotia were given one year to declare allegiance to Britain or leave the region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Doughty |first=Arthur G. |author-link=Arthur G. Doughty |title=The Acadian exiles: a chronicle of the land of Evangeline |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/acadianexileschr00douguoft/page/28 |year=1916 |publisher=Brook and Company |pages=28–46 |chapter=The Oath of Allegiance}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Acadian HeartlandRecords of the Deportation and Le Grand Dérangement, 1714-1768 |work=Nova Scotia Archives |date=April 20, 2020 |pages=263–267 footnote |url=https://novascotia.ca/archives/deportation/archives.asp?Number=ONEII&Page=263&Language=English&Search=allegiance}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doucetfamily.org/heritage/Oath.htm|title=Our Acadian Heritage: Oath Of Allegiance Becomes Sticking Point With Acadians |website=Les Doucet du Monde}}</ref> In the meantime, the French signalled their preparedness for future hostilities by beginning the construction of [[Fortress Louisbourg]] on Île Royale, now Cape Breton Island. The British grew increasingly alarmed by the prospect of disloyalty in wartime of the Acadians now under their rule. French missionaries worked to maintain the loyalty of Acadians, and to maintain a hold on the mainland part of Acadia.

====Dummer's War====
[[File:1720 Chatelain Map of North America - Geographicus - Amerique-chatelain-1720.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|French map of 1720 North America. Acadie extends clearly into present-day New Brunswick.]]
During the escalation that preceded [[Dummer's War]] (1722–1725), some Acadians, the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] and the French priests persisted in defending Acadia, which had been conceded to the British in the Treaty of Utrecht, at its border against New England. The Miꞌkmaq refused to recognize the treaty handing over their land to the English and hostilities resumed. The Miꞌkmaq raided the new fort at [[Canso, Nova Scotia]] in 1720. The Confederacy made numerous raids on New England settlements along the border into New England. Towards the end of January 1722, Governor [[Samuel Shute]] chose to launch a punitive expedition against [[Sébastien Rale]], a Jesuit missionary, at [[Norridgewock]].<ref>{{cite DCB |title=Rale, Sébastien |first=Thomas |last=Charland |volume=2 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/rale_sebastien_2E.html}}</ref> This breach of the border of Acadia, which had at any rate been ceded to the British, drew all of the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy into the conflict.

Under potential siege by the Confederacy, in May 1722, Lieutenant Governor [[John Doucett]] took 22 Miꞌkmaq hostage at [[Annapolis Royal]] to prevent the capital from being attacked.{{sfn|Grenier|2008|p=56}} In July 1722, the [[Abenaki people|Abenaki]] and [[Miꞌkmaq people|Miꞌkmaq]] created a blockade of Annapolis Royal, with the intent of starving the capital.{{sfn|Murdoch|1865|p=399}} The natives captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners from present-day [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]] to Canso. They also seized prisoners and vessels from the [[Bay of Fundy]].

As a result of the escalating conflict, Massachusetts Governor Shute officially declared war on 22 July 1722.{{sfn|Murdoch|1865|p=398}} The first battle of Father Rale's War happened in the Nova Scotia [[Acadian theatre|theatre]].{{efn|The Nova Scotia theatre of the Dummer War is named the "Miꞌkmaq-Maliseet War" by John Grenier {{harv|Grenier|2008}} }} In response to the blockade of Annapolis Royal, at the end of July 1722, New England launched a campaign to end the blockade and retrieve over 86 New England prisoners taken by the natives. One of these operations resulted in the [[Battle at Winnepang (Jeddore Harbour)|Battle at Jeddore]].{{sfn|Murdoch|1865|p=399}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Plank|first=Geoffrey|title=An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign Against the Peoples of Acadia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWwtrvUzceIC&pg=PA78|year=2001|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-1869-8|page=78}}</ref> The next was a raid on Canso in 1723.{{sfn|Grenier|2008|p=62}}<ref>Benjamin Church, p. 289</ref> Then in July 1724 a group of sixty Miꞌkmaq and Wolastoqiyik raided Annapolis Royal.{{sfn|Faragher|2005|pp=164–165}}{{sfn|Dunn|2004|p=123}}

As a result of Father Rale's War, present-day central Maine fell again to the British with the defeat of Sébastien Rale at Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the native population from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers.

====King George's War====
[[File:Samuel Scott - Action Between Nottingham And Mars 1746.jpg|thumb|[[Duc d'Anville Expedition]]: ''Action between {{HMS|Nottingham|1703|6}} and the Mars'']]
[[King George's War]] began when the war declarations from Europe reached the French [[Fortress Louisbourg|fortress at Louisbourg]] first, on May 3, 1744, and the forces there wasted little time in beginning hostilities. Concerned about their overland supply lines to [[Quebec City|Quebec]], they first [[Raid on Canso|raided the British fishing port of Canso]] on May 23, and then organized an attack on [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]], then the capital of [[Nova Scotia]]. However, French forces were delayed in departing Louisbourg, and their [[Miꞌkmaq people|Miꞌkmaq]] and [[Wolastoqiyik|Wolastoqey]] allies decided to [[Siege of Fort Anne|attack on their own]] in early July. Annapolis had received news of the war declaration, and was somewhat prepared when the Indians began besieging [[Fort Anne]]. Lacking heavy weapons, the Indians withdrew after a few days. Then, in mid-August, a larger French force arrived before Fort Anne, but was also unable to mount an effective attack or siege against the garrison, which had received supplies and reinforcements from [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]]. In 1745, British colonial forces conducted the [[siege of Port Toulouse]] (St. Peter's) and then [[Siege of Louisbourg (1745)|captured Fortress Louisbourg]] after a siege of six weeks. France launched [[Duc d'Anville Expedition|a major expedition]] to recover Acadia in 1746. Beset by storms, disease, and finally the death of its commander, the [[Jean-Baptiste Louis Frédéric de La Rochefoucauld de Roye|Duc d'Anville]], it returned to France in tatters without reaching its objective. French officer [[Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay]] also arrived from Quebec and conducted the [[Battle at Port-la-Joye]] on Île Saint-Jean and the [[Battle of Grand Pré]].

====Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755)====
{{Main|Father Le Loutre's War}}
[[File:Acadians 2, inset of painting by Samuel Scott of Annapolis Royal, 1751.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Acadians at Annapolis Royal, by [[Samuel Scott (painter)|Samuel Scott]], 1751; earliest known image of Acadians]]
Despite the British capture of the Acadian capital in the [[siege of Port Royal (1710)]], Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians and Miꞌkmaq. To prevent the establishment of Protestant settlements in the region, Miꞌkmaq raided the early British settlements of present-day [[Shelburne, Nova Scotia|Shelburne]] (1715) and [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]] (1720). A generation later, [[Father Le Loutre's War]] began when [[Edward Cornwallis]] arrived to establish [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]] with 13 transports on 21 June 1749.{{efn|The framework "Father Le Loutre's War" is developed by John Grenier in {{harvp|Grenier|2008}} ''The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760''. and {{harvp|Grenier|2005}} ''The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814''. He outlines his rationale for naming these conflicts as Father Le Loutre's War}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Akins |first=Thomas B. |title=History of Halifax City |url=https://archive.org/details/historyhalifaxc00akingoog |year=1895 |publisher=Nova Scotia Historical Society |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyhalifaxc00akingoog/page/n15 7]}}</ref> The British quickly began to build other settlements. To guard against Miꞌkmaq, Acadian and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, they erected fortifications in Halifax [[Citadel Hill (Fort George)|(Citadel Hill)]] (1749), Dartmouth (1750), Bedford (Fort Sackville) (1751), [[Lunenburg, Nova Scotia|Lunenburg]] (1753) and [[Lawrencetown, Halifax County, Nova Scotia|Lawrencetown]] (1754).{{sfn|Grenier|2005}} There were numerous Miꞌkmaq and Acadian raids on these villages such as the [[Raid on Dartmouth (1751)]].

Within 18 months of establishing Halifax, the British also took firm control of peninsular Nova Scotia by building fortifications in all the major Acadian communities: present-day Windsor ([[Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)|Fort Edward]], 1750); Grand Pre ([[Fort Vieux Logis]], 1749) and Chignecto ([[Fort Lawrence]], 1750). (A British fort already existed at the other major Acadian centre of [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia]]. Cobequid remained without a fort.){{sfn|Grenier|2005}} Numerous Miꞌkmaq and Acadian raids took place against these fortifications, such as the [[siege of Grand Pre]] (1749).

====Deportation of the Acadians====
{{Main|Expulsion of the Acadians}}
[[File:A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grymross, by Thomas Davies, 1758.JPG|thumb|[[St. John River Campaign]]: ''A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grimross'' (present-day [[Arcadia, New Brunswick]]) by [[Thomas Davies (British Army officer)|Thomas Davies]] in 1758. This is the only contemporaneous image of the [[Expulsion of the Acadians]].]]
[[File:Destruction du vaisseau le Prudent et capture du Bienfaisant a Louisbourg 1758.jpg|thumb|[[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)]]]]
In the years after the British conquest, the Acadians refused to swear unconditional oaths of allegiance to the British crown. During this time period some Acadians participated in militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to Fortress Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour.{{sfn|Grenier|2008}} During the [[French and Indian War]], the British sought to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting them.<ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen E. |last=Patterson |chapter=Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749–61: A Study in Political Interaction |editor1-last=Buckner |editor1-first=Phillip A. |editor2-last=Campbell |editor2-first=Gail G. |editor3-last=Frank |editor3-first=David |title=The Acadiensis Reader: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation |publisher=Acadiensis Press |edition=third |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/atlanticcanadabe0000unse/page/105 105–106] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnxIPgAACAAJ&pg=PA105 |isbn=978-0-9191-0744-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/atlanticcanadabe0000unse/page/105 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen E. |last=Patterson |chapter=Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples |editor1-last=Buckner |editor1-first=Phillip |editor2-last=Reid |editor2-first=John G. |title=The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2spDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |date=1994 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4875-1676-5 |page=144}}</ref>

This process began in 1755, after the British [[Battle of Fort Beauséjour|captured Fort Beauséjour]] and began the [[expulsion of the Acadians]] with the [[Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)|Bay of Fundy Campaign]]. Between six and seven thousand Acadians were expelled from Nova Scotia<ref>{{cite book |last=Mouhot |first=Jean-Francois |date=2009 |title=Les Réfugiés Acadiens en France (1758–1785): L'Impossible réintégration? |trans-title=The Acadian Refugees in France, 1758-1785: The Impossible Reintegration? |language=fr |publisher=Editions du Septentrion |isbn=978-2-8944-8513-2}}</ref> to the [[Thirteen Colonies|lower British American colonies]].{{sfn|Faragher|2005}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Lacoursière |first=Jacques |date=1995 |title=Histoire populaire du Québec, Tome 1, des origines à 1791 |trans-title=Folk History of Quebec, Volume 1: From origins to 1791 |language=fr |publisher=Éditions du Septentrion |page=270 |isbn=978-2-8944-8739-6}}</ref> Some Acadians eluded capture by fleeing deep into the wilderness or into [[Canada, New France|French-controlled Canada]]. The Quebec town of L'Acadie (now a sector of [[Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu]]) was founded by expelled Acadians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ville.saint-jean-sur-richelieu.qc.ca/cgi-bin/index.cgi?page=y1_2 |title=Ville de Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005041258/http://www.ville.saint-jean-sur-richelieu.qc.ca/cgi-bin/index.cgi?page=y1_2 |archive-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref> After the [[siege of Louisbourg (1758)]], a second wave of the expulsion began with the [[St. John River Campaign]], [[Petitcodiac River Campaign]], [[Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758)|Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign]] and the [[Île Saint-Jean Campaign]].

The Acadians and the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] created a significant resistance to the British throughout the war. They repeatedly raided Canso, Lunenburg, Halifax, Chignecto and into New England.{{sfn|Grenier|2008}}

Any pretense that France might maintain or regain control over the remnants of Acadia came to an end with the fall of Montreal in 1760 and the 1763 [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]], which permanently ceded almost all of eastern New France to Britain. In 1763, Britain would designate lands west of the Appalachians as the "Indian Reserve", but did not respect Miꞌkmaq title to the Atlantic region, claiming title was obtained from the French. The Miꞌkmaq remain in Acadia to this day. After 1764, many exiled Acadians finally settled in [[Spanish Louisiana|Louisiana]], which had been transferred by France to Spain as part of the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] which formally ended conflict between France and Great Britain over control of North America (the [[Seven Years' War]], known as the [[French and Indian War]] in the United States),.<ref name="Marston">{{cite book |title=The French–Indian War 1754–1760 |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchindianwar00mars_617 |url-access=limited |last=Marston |first=Daniel |pages=[https://archive.org/details/frenchindianwar00mars_617/page/n81 84] |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-415-96838-0}}</ref> The [[demonym]] ''Acadian'' developed into ''[[Cajun]],'' which was first used as a pejorative term until its later mainstream acceptance.

Britain eventually moderated its policies and allowed Acadians to return to Nova Scotia. However, most of the fertile former Acadian lands were now occupied by British colonists. The returning Acadians settled instead in more outlying areas of the original Acadia, such as Cape Breton and the areas which are now New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.<ref>Landry and Lang, p.128</ref>