Editing Zeno of Citium (section)

==Life==
Zeno was born c. 334 BC,{{efn|name="dates"}} in the colony of [[Kition|Citium]] in [[Classical Cyprus|Cyprus]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hadjisavvas|first=Sophocles|title=The Phoenician Period Necropolis of Kition| volume =I|year=2013|publisher=Shelby White and Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Publications|url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~semitic/wl/publications/2012/hadjisavvas.html|page=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111945/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~semitic/wl/publications/2012/hadjisavvas.html|archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref><ref name="Yon 9">{{cite journal | title = Kition in the Tenth to Fourth Centuries B.C. | journal = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research | date = Nov 1997 | first = Marguerite | last = Yon |author2=William A. P.  | volume=308 | issue = 308 | pages = 9–17 | doi = 10.2307/1357405 | jstor=1357405 | s2cid = 156694103 }}</ref> His ancestry is disputed between [[Phoenicia]]n and [[Greeks|Greek]],<ref name="Pearson">{{Cite book |last=Pearson |first=Alfred Chilton |author-link=Alfred Chilton Pearson |title=The Fragments of Zeno & Cleanthes with Introduction & Explanatory Notes |date=1891 |publisher=C.J. Clay & Sons |pages=2 |language= |quote=Zeno, the son of Mnaseas', was born at Citium , a Greek city in the south-east of Cyprus, whose population had been increased by Phoenician immigrants. Whether he was of pure Greek blood or not we cannot tell...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thereianos |first=Dionysios |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N30vAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27 |title=Διάγραμμα Στωικής Φιλοσοφίας |date=1892 |publisher=Τυπογραφείον του Αυστριακού Λόυδ |location=Trieste, Austro-Hungarian Empire |page=27 |language=el |trans-title=Diagram of Stoic Philosophy |quote=Αλλ ̓ αὐτὸς οὗτος ὁ Stein, ἀλλαχοῦ τοῦ ἀξιολόγου αὑτοῦ συγγράμματος, παρατηρεῖ «ὅτι δὲν ἐλύθη εἰσέτι ὁριστικῶς τὸ ζήτημα ἂν ὁ Ζήνων κατήγετο ἐκ Φοινίκων ἢ ἐξ Ἑλλήνων»...}}</ref> because Citium contained both Phoenician and Greek inhabitants.<ref name="Pearson" /><ref name="Whibley">{{Cite book |last=Whibley |first=Leonard |url= |title=A Companion to Greek Studies |date=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-49754-2 |pages=219 |language=en |quote=Citium in Cyprus, contained Phoenician as well as Greek inhabitants, but there is no real evidence that he was of Phoenician descent. |author-link=Leonard Whibley}}</ref> While a number of contemporary and modern historians regard Zeno as a Phoenician,<ref name="Tarn">{{cite book|last=Tarn|first=W.W.|author-link=William Woodthorpe Tarn|date=1952|title=Hellenistic Civilisation|url=https://archive.org/details/HellenisticCivilisation1952ByW.W.TARNREVISEDG.T.GRIFFITH|page=330}}</ref><ref>Max Pohlenz, ''Die Stoa: Geschichte einer geistigen Bewegung''. As reviewed by {{cite book|author=Phillip de Lacy|title=Reviewed Work: Die Stoa: Geschichte einer geistigen Bewegung by Max Pohlenz|volume=46|issue=4|date=October 1, 1951|pages= 260–262|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|jstor=265746}}</ref> other modern scholars have contested this arguing for a Greek{{efn|Claims of Zeno's Phoenician descent are often based on the fact that he was often called "Phoenician" by his contemporaries, but such epithets do not necessarily indicate ethnic origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Edwin L. |date=1981 |title=The Origin of the Constellation Name 'Cynosura'|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43077542 |journal=Orientalia |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=384–402 |jstor=43077542 |issn=0030-5367}}</ref>}}<ref name=Whibley /> or Greco-Phoenician background.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hicks |first=R. D. |url= |title=Stoic and Epicurean |date=2019 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-83960-8 |page=4 |language=en}}</ref> The only things that historians know with certainty, are that Zeno had a [[Greek name]], a [[Education in Greece|Greek higher education]] and that there is no evidence he knew a language other than Greek.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bar-Kochva |first=Bezalel |url= |title=The Image of the Jews in Greek Literature: The Hellenistic Period |date=2016 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-29084-6 |pages=341 |language=en}}</ref> His father, Mnaseas, had a name ambiguously meaningful both in Phoenician ("one causing to forget") and in Greek ("mindful").<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Magill |first=Frank N. |url= |title=The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography|volume= 1 |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-45739-6 |pages=1273 |language=en}}</ref> His mother and her name are not recorded.<ref name=":0" />

Most of the details known about his life come from the biography and anecdotes preserved by [[Diogenes Laërtius]] in his ''[[Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers]]'' written in the 3rd century AD, a few of which are confirmed by the ''[[Suda]]'' (a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia).<ref>[[Suda]] https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-cgi-bin/search.cgi?login=guest&enlogin=guest&db=REAL&field=adlerhw_gr&searchstr=zeta,79 ''Zeno''</ref> Diogenes reports that Zeno's interest in philosophy began when "he consulted [[Pythia|the oracle]] to know what he should do to attain the best life, and that the gods' response was that he should take on the complexion of the dead. Whereupon, perceiving what this meant, he studied ancient authors."<ref name=Diogenes>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=7:chapter=1|title=Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book VII, Chapter 1. Zeno (333–261 B.C.)|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref> Zeno became a wealthy merchant.

On a voyage from [[Phoenicia]] to [[Peiraeus]] he survived a shipwreck, after which he went to Athens and visited a bookseller. There he encountered [[Xenophon]]'s ''[[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|Memorabilia]]''. He was so pleased with the book's portrayal of [[Socrates]] that he asked the bookseller where men like Socrates were to be found. Just then, [[Crates of Thebes]]{{snd}}the most famous [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynic]] living at that time in [[Greece]]{{snd}}happened to be walking by, and the bookseller pointed to him.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 2–3}}

Diogenes Laërtius describes Zeno as a haggard, dark-skinned person,{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 1}} living a spare, [[ascetic]] life{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 26–27}} despite his wealth. This coincides with the influences of Cynic teaching, and was, at least in part, continued in his Stoic philosophy. From the day Zeno became Crates’ pupil, he showed a strong bent for philosophy, though with too much native modesty to assimilate ''Anaideia;'' Cynic “shamelessness” and the disregard for societal norms in favor of freedom. An example of this may be found in the writings of [[Apuleius]] who narrates an incident where Crates and [[Hipparchia of Maroneia|Hipparchia]], his wife and fellow Cynic, engaged in a [[Public sex|public act of sexual intercourse]] and, as such, drew a crowd. Zeno, upon catching sight of this, covered them both with his cloak so as to prevent bystanders from witnessing the copulating couple, displaying his own inability to be apathetic to the expectations of society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Apuleius: Florida - translation |url=https://www.attalus.org/translate/florida.html |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=www.attalus.org}}</ref> Hence Crates, desirous of curing this defect in him, gave him a potful of lentil-soup to carry through the [[Ceramicus]] (the pottery district); and when he saw that Zeno was ashamed and tried to keep it out of sight, Crates broke the pot with a blow of his staff. As Zeno began to run off in embarrassment with the lentil-soup flowing down his legs, Crates chided, "Why run away, my little Phoenician? Nothing terrible has befallen you."{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 3}}

According to his contemporaries, Zeno was attracted only to boys and other men,<ref>Pickett, B. (2020) ''Homosexuality, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.'' Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/homosexuality/ (Accessed: 07 February 2025). </ref> and Diogenes Laërtius mentions by name at least one with whom he was enamored, a young man named Chremonides<ref name=Diogenes/> (who may or may not be the Athenian statesman and general [[Chremonides]]).

Apart from Crates, Zeno studied under the philosophers of the [[Megarian school]], including [[Stilpo]],{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 2, 24}} and the [[dialectic]]ians [[Diodorus Cronus]],{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 16, 25}} and [[Philo the Dialectician|Philo]].{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 16}} He is also said to have studied [[Platonist]] philosophy under the direction of [[Xenocrates]],<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 2}}; but note that Xenocrates died 314/13 BC</ref> and [[Polemon (scholarch)|Polemo]].{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 2, 25}}

Zeno began teaching in the [[Stoa|colonnade]] in the [[Ancient Agora of Athens|Agora of Athens]] known as the [[Stoa Poikile]] (Greek Στοὰ Ποικίλη) in 301 BC. His disciples were initially called "Zenonians," but eventually they came to be known as "Stoics," a name previously applied to poets who congregated in the Stoa Poikile.

Among the admirers of Zeno was king [[Antigonus II Gonatas]] of [[Macedon]]ia,<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 6–9, 13–15, 36}}; Epictetus, ''Discourses'', ii. 13. 14–15; Simplicius, ''in Epictetus Enchiridion'', 51; Aelian, ''Varia Historia'', ix. 26</ref> who, whenever he came to Athens, would visit Zeno. Zeno is said to have declined an invitation to visit Antigonus in Macedonia, although their supposed correspondence preserved by Laërtius{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 6–9}} is undoubtedly the invention of a later writer.<ref name="brunt">{{cite book|first=P. A.|last=Brunt|chapter=The Political Attitudes of the Old Stoa|page=87|title=Studies in Stoicism|publisher =Oxford University Press|editor1-first=Miriam|editor1-last=Griffin|editor2-first=Alison|editor2-last=Samuels|year=2013|isbn=978-0199695850}}</ref> Zeno instead sent his friend and disciple [[Persaeus]],{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 6–9}} who had lived with Zeno in his house.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 13, comp. 36}} Among Zeno's other pupils there were [[Aristo of Chios]], [[Sphaerus]], and [[Cleanthes]] who succeeded Zeno as the head (''[[scholarch]]'') of the Stoic school in Athens.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 37}}

Zeno is said to have declined Athenian citizenship when it was offered to him, fearing that he would appear unfaithful to his native land,<ref>Plutarch, ''de Stoicor. repugn'', p. 1034; comp. {{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 12}}.</ref> where he was highly esteemed, and where he contributed to the restoration of its baths, after which his name was inscribed upon a pillar there as "Zeno the philosopher".{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 6}} We are also told that Zeno was of an earnest, gloomy disposition;<ref>{{harvnb|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 16, comp. 26}}; Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Epistles'', ix. 9</ref> that he preferred the company of the few to the many;{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 14}} that he was fond of burying himself in investigations;{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 15}} and that he disliked verbose and elaborate speeches.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 18, 22}} Diogenes Laërtius has preserved many clever and witty remarks by Zeno,{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 18–25}} although these anecdotes are generally considered unreliable.<ref name="brunt"/>

Zeno died around 262 BC.{{Ref label|A|a|none}} Laërtius reports about his death:

{{blockquote|
As he was leaving the school he tripped and fell, breaking his toe. Striking the ground with his fist, he [[last words|quoted]] the line from the ''[[Aeschylus#Niobe|Niobe]]'':
<blockquote>I come, I come, why dost thou call for me?</blockquote>
and died on the spot through holding his breath.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 28}}
}}

At Zeno's funeral an [[epitaph]] was composed for him stating:

{{blockquote|And if thy native country was Phoenicia,

What need to slight thee? Came not Cadmus thence,

Who gave to Greece her books and art of writing?{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 30}}
}}

This signified that even though Zeno was of [[barbarian|non-Greek]] background the Greeks still respected him, comparing him to the legendary Phoenician hero [[Cadmus]] who had brought the [[Phoenician alphabet|alphabet]] to the Greeks, as Zeno had brought Stoicism to them and was described as "the noblest man of his age" with a bronze statue being built in his honor.<ref name="Tarn" />{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 6, 11}}

During his lifetime, Zeno received appreciation for his philosophical and [[pedagogical]] teachings. Among other things, Zeno was honored with the golden crown,{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 6, 11}} and a tomb was built in honor of his moral influence on the youth of his era.{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 10–12}}

The crater [[Zeno (crater)|Zeno]] on the [[Moon]] is named in his honour.