Editing Zambian Defence Force (section)

==History==
===Background and independence===
The Zambian Defence Force had its roots in the [[Northern Rhodesia Regiment]], a [[Multiracial people|multi-ethnic]] military unit which was raised by the British colonial government and had served with distinction during [[World War II]].<ref name="Ourselves" /> In 1960, the constituent colonies of [[Northern Rhodesia]], [[Southern Rhodesia]], and [[Nyasaland]] were amalgamated into a self-governing [[British Empire|British]] dependency known as the [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]].<ref name="Command">{{cite thesis|degree=MsC|title=Implications for a Non-Unified Command System and the Need For a Unified Command System in Zambia|last=Shapwaya|first=Moses|url=http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA623984|publisher=[[United States Army Command and General Staff College]]|year=2013|access-date=27 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626012319/http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA623984|archive-date=26 June 2017|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> When the federation was dissolved three years later, the assets and personnel of its armed forces were integrated with those of its successor states, including Northern Rhodesia, which subsequently gained independence as Zambia.<ref name="Command" /> For example, Zambia received half the federal [[armored car (military)|armoured car squadron]] as well as some light patrol aircraft.<ref name="trade">{{cite web |url=http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/trade_register.php |title=Trade Registers |publisher=Armstrade.sipri.org |access-date=2013-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414022558/http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/trade_register.php |archive-date=2010-04-14 |url-status=live }}</ref> Zambia also inherited the command structures of the [[Northern Rhodesia]] Regiment as well as the Northern Rhodesian Air Wing, which formed the basis for the new Zambian Army and Zambian Air Force, respectively.<ref name="Command" />

Relations almost immediately soured between Zambia and Southern Rhodesia, now known simply as ''Rhodesia'', which had [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|issued its own unilateral declaration of independence]] (UDI) in 1965.<ref name="Studies2004">{{cite book|last1=Ashton|first1=S R|last2=Roger-Louis|first2=Wm|title=East of Suez and the Commonwealth 1964–1971: Europe, Rhodesia, Commonwealth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owvXW06nujsC&pg=PA277|access-date=17 January 2013|series=British Documents on the End of Empire|volume=Series A Vol 5 Part II|year=2004|publisher=The Stationery Office|isbn=9780112905837|pages=221–222|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628135441/http://books.google.com/books?id=owvXW06nujsC&pg=PA277|archive-date=28 June 2014|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Reports that Rhodesian security forces had occupied [[Kariba Dam]] prompted Zambian President [[Kenneth Kaunda]] to mobilise the ZDF for the first time and deploy troops to the border.<ref name="Studies2004"/> The ZDF was withdrawn when Kaunda received a guarantee that Zambia's supply of Kariba power would not be interrupted.<ref name=Wilkenfeld>{{cite book|author1-link=Michael Brecher|author2-link=Jonathan Wilkenfeld|last1=Brecher|first1=Michael|last2=Wilkenfeld|first2=Jonathan|title=A Study of Crisis|date=1997|pages=[https://archive.org/details/studyofcrisis0000brec/page/105 105–107]|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor|isbn=978-0472087075|url=https://archive.org/details/studyofcrisis0000brec/page/105}}</ref> Nevertheless, military tension between the two nations remained high, and border incidents resulting in civilian deaths occurred.<ref name=Tordoff>{{cite book|last=Tordoff|first=William|title=Politics in Zambia|date=1974|pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsinzambia0000unse/page/358 358–362]|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=North Manchester|isbn=978-0719005510|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsinzambia0000unse/page/358}}</ref> In November 1966, Rhodesian troops fired across the border and killed a Zambian woman on the north bank of the [[Zambezi River]].<ref name=Tordoff/> In January 1973, Zambian troops fired on a South African police patrol boat on the Zambezi.<ref name=Tordoff/> Shortly afterwards, Defence Minister [[Alexander Grey Zulu|Grey Zulu]] ordered that the ZDF return to the border in force.<ref name=Tordoff/> Later in the month Kaunda brought the first of several complaints before the [[United Nations Security Council]] charging that Rhodesian security forces were violating Zambia's sovereignty and territorial integrity with South African support.<ref name=Tordoff/> Tensions flared again when Zambian troops fired across the border and killed two Canadian tourists on the Rhodesian side of [[Victoria Falls, Zambia|Victoria Falls]] in May 1973.<ref name=Scully>{{cite book|last=Scully|first=Pat|title=Exit Rhodesia|date=1984|page=162|publisher=Cottswold Press|location=Ladysmith|isbn=978-0620078023}}</ref>

The increasing prospect of war with Rhodesia posed several unique security dilemmas for the ZDF.<ref name=Tordoff/> Firstly, Zambia lacked the manpower or conventional hardware necessary to provide a suitable deterrent to a Rhodesian incursion.<ref name=Tordoff/> It also remained dependent on a relatively small pool of white senior officers and technical personnel.<ref name=Tordoff/> After 1967 Kaunda's government began replacing them with foreign officers on contract, ostensibly to minimise the potential for conflicts of loyalty.<ref name=Tordoff/> Between 1967 and 1970 the majority of officers in the ZDF were seconded from the [[British Army]].<ref name=Tordoff/> In 1971, the ZDF was finally prepared to appoint its first black army and air force commanders.<ref name="Command"/> Due to the white community's close ties with Rhodesia and South Africa, white Zambians were subsequently barred from voluntary enlistment and granted a blanket exemption from conscription.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVNBAQAAIAAJ&q=%22white+Zambians%22|title=Southern Africa Political & Economic Monthly|date=Feb 16, 1994|publisher=Southern African Political Economy Series (SAPES) Publications Project|access-date=Feb 16, 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref>

Around September 1967, Kaunda made two requests to the United States for equipment for the Zambian Army, including long-range [[missile]] systems, but was rebuffed.<ref name=Atomic>{{cite book|last=DeRoche|first=Andrew|editor1-last=Gewald|editor1-first=Jan-Bert|editor2-last=Hinfelaar|editor2-first=Marja|editor3-last=Macola|editor3-first=Giacomo|title=One Zambia, Many Histories: Towards a History of Post-colonial Zambia|date=2008|pages=86–115|publisher=Koninklihje Brill NV|location=Leiden, Netherlands|isbn=978-9004165946}}</ref> More successful were Zambia's attempts to acquire its first combat aircraft, a number of [[Aermacchi MB-326]] and [[SIAI-Marchetti SF.260]]s sourced from Italy;<ref name="trade"/> the first black Zambian Air Force pilots were trained by Italian instructors between 1966 and 1969.<ref name=Atomic/> Italy also sold the ZDF helicopters and towed artillery.<ref name="trade"/>

===Involvement in regional conflicts, 1968–80===
During the 1970s, Zambia began providing sanctuary for a number of revolutionary and militant political movements dedicated to overthrowing colonial and white minority rule elsewhere on the African continent.<ref name=Hughes>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geraint|title=My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics|date=2014|pages=45–53|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|isbn=978-1845196271}}</ref> Guerrilla armies based in exile in Zambia included the [[People's Liberation Army of Namibia]] (PLAN)<ref name=covert/> and the [[Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army]] (ZIPRA).<ref name=Hughes/> These movements ultimately embroiled the ZDF in their own internal power struggles<ref name=Chesterman>{{cite book|last=Lamb|first=Guy|editor-last=Chesterman|editor-first=Simon|title=Civilians in War|date=2001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/civiliansinwar0000unse/page/322 322–342]|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers, Incorporated|location=Boulder, Colorado|isbn=978-1555879884|url=https://archive.org/details/civiliansinwar0000unse/page/322}}</ref> as well as direct clashes with foreign troops carrying out preemptive strikes.<ref name=Hughes/> In 1968, the ZDF skirmished with Portuguese troops which had pursued a number of Angolan or Mozambican insurgents into Zambia.<ref name=Tordoff/> In September 1975, Zambian troops became locked in a firefight with [[Insurgency|insurgents]] of the [[Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army]] (ZANLA).<ref name="ZANLA">{{cite book |title=Ending civil war: Rhodesia and Lebanon in perspective |last=Preston |first=Matthew |location=London |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |date=September 2004 |isbn=1-85043-579-0 |page=124}}</ref> The ZDF killed eleven ZANLA insurgents and later expelled that movement from Zambian soil.<ref name="ZANLA"/> A year later, nearly two thousand<ref name="Frontiersmen">{{cite book|title=Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa since 1950|url=https://archive.org/details/frontiersmenwarf00clay|url-access=limited|last=Clayton|first=Anthony|location=Philadelphia|publisher=UCL Press, Limited|date=1999|isbn=978-1857285253|pages=[https://archive.org/details/frontiersmenwarf00clay/page/n144 119]–124}}</ref> disaffected PLAN insurgents in Zambia launched a mutiny which became known as the "Shipanga Affair".<ref name="Sellström">{{cite book|last=Sellström|first=Tor|url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:nai:diva-204|title=Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Vol. 2 : Solidarity and assistance, 1970–1994|date=2002|publisher=Nordic Africa Institute|isbn=978-91-7106-448-6|location=Uppsala|pages=308–310}}</ref> The army was forced to marshal several battalions to subdue the dissidents.<ref name=Chesterman/>

In response to Zambia's increasingly open support for PLAN, South Africa sponsored a force of [[Kaonde language|Kaonde]]-speaking dissidents under [[Adamson Mushala]], known as the Zambian Democratic Supreme Council (DSC).<ref name="Zambian">{{cite book|title=Rethinking African Politics: A History of Opposition in Zambia|last=Larmer|first=Miles|year=2011|location=Surrey|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-1409482499|pages=148–153}}</ref> The DSC maintained a low level insurgency in Zambia's [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western]] and [[Western Province, Zambia|Western]] Provinces.<ref name="Beggar">{{cite book|last=Hanlon|first=Joseph|title=Beggar Your Neighbors: Apartheid Power in Southern Africa|date=1986|page=[https://archive.org/details/beggaryourneighb00hanl/page/244 244]|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0253331311|url=https://archive.org/details/beggaryourneighb00hanl/page/244}}</ref> Mushala's guerrillas sabotaged infrastructure, skirmished with the ZDF, and collected intelligence on PLAN movements inside Zambia.<ref name="Dreyer">{{cite book|title=Namibia and Southern Africa: Regional Dynamics of Decolonization, 1945-90|last=Dreyer|first=Ronald|location=London|publisher=Kegan Paul International|year=1994|isbn=978-0710304711|page=140}}</ref> They were trained by [[South African Special Forces]] and instructors recruited from the Portuguese [[PIDE|Directorate-General of Security]].<ref name=Caprivi>{{cite book|last=Kangumu|first=Bennett|title=Contesting Caprivi: A History of Colonial Isolation and Regional Nationalism in Namibia|date=2011|pages=155–156|publisher=Basler Afrika Bibliographien Namibia Resource Center and Southern Africa Library|location=Basel|isbn=978-3905758221}}</ref> In 1973, an army unit killed a hundred of the guerrillas by ambushing them as they attempted to cross the Zambezi near the Caprivi Strip.<ref name=Caprivi/> Mushala was largely inactive until early 1976, when his guerrillas skirmished twice with the ZDF and hijacked an army payroll.<ref name="Zambian"/>

As a result of the new challenges posed by the Mushala insurgency and the presence of foreign militants, the ZDF underwent an extensive reorganisation and adopted a new unified command structure.<ref name="Command"/> It was renamed the ''Zambian National Defence Force'' (ZNDF) in 1976.<ref name="Command"/> A prevailing feature of the new ZNDF was its adoption of a third branch known as the Zambian National Service.<ref name="Command"/> The objective of the Zambian National Service was to provide basic military instruction to all Zambian citizens in the event they needed to be mobilised as reservists during wartime.<ref name=Ourselves/> The ZNDF became increasingly politicised, with the ruling [[United National Independence Party]] (UNIP) forming party branches in the barracks and introducing a number of political education programs for military personnel.<ref name=Phiri>{{cite book|last=Phiri|first=Bizeck Jube|editor1-last=Cawthra|editor1-first=Gavin|editor2-last=Du Pisani|editor2-first=Andre|editor3-last=Omari|editor3-first=Abillah|title=Security and Democracy in Southern Africa|date=2007|pages=206–220|publisher=University of Witwatersrand Press|location=Johannesburg|isbn=978-1-86814-453-2}}</ref> Under the UNIP, the ZNDF was not subject to public audit or parliamentary oversight.<ref name=Phiri/> This was justified under the pretext that the ZNDF's development was tied to the exigencies of wartime.<ref name=Phiri/>

Between 1977 and 1980 military tension with South Africa and Rhodesia continued to escalate, resulting in a renewed spate of border incidents.<ref name="Africa">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s_DiAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Zambian+troops%22+%22Rhodesia%22|title=Africa|date=Feb 16, 1977|publisher=Africa Journal, Limited|access-date=Feb 16, 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref> In 1977, the ZNDF bombarded Rhodesian positions near [[Victoria Falls]] with rocket and mortar fire.<ref name="Africa"/> The reasons for the attack were disputed but the Zambian government maintained that the troops involved had been deliberately provoked by Rhodesian forces into firing.<ref name="Africa"/> Around March 1978, the ZNDF claimed to have been involved in repelling a Rhodesian raid on a ZIPRA training camp.<ref name="Raid">{{cite news|title=Rhodesia Mounts Biggest Raid Yet Against Zambia|last=Ottaway|first=David|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/03/08/rhodesia-mounts-biggest-raid-yet-against-zambia/f2499a48-89ce-4c10-a18f-688bf5e31a3e/|newspaper=The Washington Post|location=Washington, D.C.|date=8 March 1978|access-date=30 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314190702/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/03/08/rhodesia-mounts-biggest-raid-yet-against-zambia/f2499a48-89ce-4c10-a18f-688bf5e31a3e/ |archive-date=14 March 2018}}</ref> It also assisted PLAN insurgents during a raid on a [[Katima Mulilo|South African military base]] in the [[Caprivi Strip]].<ref name=covert/> South Africa retaliated by shelling several ZNDF positions near the border,<ref name="Borderstrike">{{cite book | first = Willem | last = Steenkamp| title = Borderstrike! South Africa Into Angola 1975-1980 | year = 2006|edition= 2006 |pages= 132–226 | publisher = Just Done Productions| isbn= 1-920169-00-8}}</ref> and Rhodesia began targeting ZNDF outposts.<ref name="TDJ">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/154837592/|title=Rhodesia Destroys Zambian Base|work=The Daily Journal|location=Franklin, Indiana|date=31 October 1978|access-date=7 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304055150/https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/154837592/|archive-date=4 March 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Growing Zambian war weariness was a significant factor in Kaunda's influencing the guerrilla movements in Rhodesia to seek peace, resulting in a negotiated end to that conflict.<ref name=Hughes/> Kaunda also bowed to South African pressure and ordered PLAN to close its rear base facilities in Zambia by 1979.<ref name="LM">{{Cite book| title = Still Killing: Landmines in Southern Africa | last = Vines | first = Alex | publisher = Human Rights Watch | location = New York 
 | date = 1997 | isbn = 978-1564322067 | pages = 104–115, 143–144 }}</ref> At the same time, the ZNDF embarked on a 70 million kwacha modernisation program with assistance from the Soviet Union.<ref name=DeRoche>{{cite book|last=DeRoche|first=Andrew|title=Kenneth Kaunda, the United States and Southern Africa|date=2016|pages=322–342|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|location=London|isbn=978-1350054424}}</ref> The Soviets provided the Zambian Army with tanks, wheeled armored vehicles, and technical instruction on especially generous terms; the Zambian Air Force received its first fighter aircraft in the form of a [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]] squadron at the same time.<ref name=DeRoche/>

===End of the Cold War and reforms===
In October 1980, two ZNDF officers, Brigadier Godfrey Miyanda and Colonel Patrick Mkandawire were arrested for planning a [[coup d'état]] with the support of an exiled Congolese insurgent movement, the [[Front for Congolese National Liberation]] (FLNC).<ref name=Atomic/> The plot involved arming the FLNC with ZNDF weaponry and later providing that movement with rear operating bases in Zambia as a reward for their efforts if the coup succeeded.<ref name=Atomic/> The ZNDF and the police apprehended the conspirators before they had opportunity to set the coup in motion and later raided the FLNC's base camp, detaining most of the insurgents.<ref name=Atomic/>

Due in part to the extreme secrecy surrounding the ZNDF's budget and the refusal of the [[United National Independence Party|UNIP]] to allow parliamentary debate on the topic, a number of problems concerning military funding were covered up rather than addressed.<ref name=Phiri/> For example, the facilities at ZNS training camps were so inadequate that typhoid outbreaks became common among recruits.<ref name=Phiri/> This was due to lack of funds to filter the camps' drinking water.<ref name=Phiri/> After a particularly serious typhoid outbreak between 1980 and 1981, the government was forced to suspend and later stop the compulsory national service programme.<ref name=Phiri/>

In November 1982, the ZNDF killed [[Adamson Mushala]] in an ambush outside Solwezi, although his followers continued to carry out operations under the leadership of Alexander Saimbwende.<ref name="Zambian"/> The DSC continued to pose a sufficient threat that an Italian mineral survey team had to be evacuated from Northwestern Province in 1984 after being targeted by the guerrillas.<ref name="Beggar"/> Nevertheless, the erosion of South African support ensured that its forces remained small and poorly armed.<ref name="Zambian"/> Mushala and later Saimbwende turned to ivory poaching to sustain their war effort against the ZNDF.<ref name="Zambian"/>

As the [[Mozambican Civil War]] intensified, the ZNDF had to contend with a number of armed incursions by [[Mozambican National Resistance]] (RENAMO) insurgents, who raided Zambian border towns in search of food and other supplies.<ref name="RENAMO">{{Cite web |url=http://insidethecoldwar.org/sites/default/files/documents/Department%20of%20State%2C%20Patterns%20of%20Global%20Terrorism%2C%201989_0.pdf |title=Patterns of Global Terrorism |access-date=2018-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129050336/http://insidethecoldwar.org/sites/default/files/documents/Department%20of%20State%2C%20Patterns%20of%20Global%20Terrorism%2C%201989_0.pdf |archive-date=2017-01-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The ZNDF made it a policy to pursue RENAMO into neighbouring Mozambique in hot pursuit if necessary.<ref name="RENAMO"/>

In 1988, a second coup d'état attempt was planned, this time by Lieutenant General Christian Tembo and at least three other senior army officers.<ref name=Chan>{{cite book|last=Chan|first=Stephen|title=Kaunda and Southern Africa|date=1992|pages=8–15|publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]]|location=London|isbn=978-1850434900}}</ref> The conspirators were detained before they could carry it out, but this temporarily jeopardised relations between the Zambian government and the army.<ref name="Command"/>

The end of the [[Cold War]] brought a number of changes to the Zambian political situation and the ZNDF.<ref name=MacDonald>{{cite book|last=MacDonald|first=Brian|title=Military Spending in Developing Countries|url=https://archive.org/details/militaryspending0000macd|url-access=registration|date=1997|pages=[https://archive.org/details/militaryspending0000macd/page/79 79–92]|publisher=Carleton University Press|location=Ottawa|isbn=978-0886293147}}</ref> The ZNDF remained heavily in debt with the former Soviet bloc for military equipment it had purchased in the 1980s, as well as interest accrued.<ref name=MacDonald/> The army in particular was badly affected by the collapse of its Soviet technical training program, which left much of its heavy weapons unserviceable.<ref name=Howe>{{cite book|last=Howe|first=Herbert|title=Ambiguous Order: Military Forces in African States|date=2004|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ambiguousordermi0000howe/page/59 59–60]|publisher=Lynne Reinner Publishers|location=Boulder, Colorado|isbn=978-1588263155|url=https://archive.org/details/ambiguousordermi0000howe/page/59}}</ref>

Following mass protests over President Kaunda's decision to cut subsidies for maize meal and double maize prices in 1990,<ref name=Brancati>{{cite book|last=Brancati|first=Dawn|title=Democracy Protests: Origins, Features, and Significance|date=2016|page=52|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1107137738}}</ref> Captain Mwamba Luchembe single-handedly seized the national radio station and [[1990 Zambian coup attempt|announced a coup d'état]].<ref name=Chan/> Luchembe held the radio station for only two hours before being arrested.<ref name=Coups>{{cite book|last=Onwumechili|first=Chuka|title=African Democratization and Military Coups|url=https://archive.org/details/africandemocrati00onwu|url-access=limited|date=1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/africandemocrati00onwu/page/n43 31]–32|publisher=Praeger Books|location=Westport, Connecticut|isbn=978-0275963255}}</ref> Kaunda's unpopularity led to demonstrations in support of Luchembe, however, and the same day the president announced he would seek a referendum on democratic multi-party elections.<ref name=Brancati/> Kaunda granted a blanket amnesty to his political opponents as he prepared to accept the return of multi-party elections, which would shortly thereafter end his term of almost three decades.<ref name="Zambian"/> Among those who received [[amnesty]] was Alexander Saimbwende, who surrendered to the government and ended the DSC insurgency.<ref name="Zambian"/>

The [[1991 Zambian general election|1991 general election]] brought [[Frederick Chiluba]] and his opposition [[Movement for Multi-Party Democracy]] to power and ushered in a period of reforms for the ZNDF.<ref name="Command"/> The Chiluba government dismantled the ZNDF's unified command structure and allowed the army, ZNS, and air force to revert to independent commands.<ref name="Command"/> The system of political patronage introduced to the ZNDF by Kaunda was also abandoned.<ref name=Phiri/> A general demobilisation programme was instituted in the army, and parliament gained the ability to debate defence expenditure.<ref name=Phiri/> The Chiluba government immediately formed a [[Public Accounts Committee]] to reduce financial irregularities in the ZNDF, most of which were linked to corruption and abuse of the ministerial tender system.<ref name=Phiri/> Zambia's 1991 constitution formally reinstated the title ''Zambian Defence Force'' for the armed forces.<ref name="Constitution1">{{cite web|title=Zambia 1991 (rev 2009)|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Zambia_2009?lang=en|location=Austin, Texas
|publisher=Comparative Constitutions Project|date=2009|access-date=15 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104000803/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Zambia_2009?lang=en|archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref>

In October 1997, Captain [[Steven Lungu]] seized control of the national radio station and [[1997 Zambian coup attempt|announced a coup d'état]].<ref name=Coups/> Lungu dismissed the chiefs of the army and police and announced that he was forming a new Government of National Redemption.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news|title=Zambia Says a Coup Is Over In 3 Hours, Without Injury|last=McNeil|first=Donald|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/29/world/zambia-says-a-coup-is-over-in-3-hours-without-injury.html|work=The New York Times|location=New York City|date=29 October 1997|access-date=19 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902152851/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/29/world/zambia-says-a-coup-is-over-in-3-hours-without-injury.html|archive-date=2 September 2017}}</ref> He gave President Chiluba an ultimatum of three hours to surrender or face death.<ref name="NYT"/> Loyal ZDF troops responded by storming the radio station, capturing Lungu and five other coup plotters.<ref name="NYT"/>

In early August 2022, the government announced that it would recruit up to 5,000 military personnel by October of the same year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |date=4 August 2022 |title=Govt to recruit 5,000 military personnel by October 2022 |url=https://www.times.co.zm/?p=118518 |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=times.co.zm}}</ref>