Editing Women in Judaism (section)

==Biblical times==
{{See also|Women in the Bible}}
Compared to men, relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role. Those mentioned include the [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]] [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca]], [[Rachel]], and [[Leah]]; [[Miriam]] the prophetess; [[Rahab]] who assisted Joshua; Achsah, daughter of Caleb; Deborah the Judge; [[Naomi (biblical figure)|Naomi]]; [[Ruth (biblical figure)|Ruth]] great-grandmother of King David [[Huldah]] the prophetess; [[Abigail]] (who married [[David]]); [[Rahab]]; and [[Persian Jewish]] queen [[Esther]]. [[Ruth (biblical figure)|Ruth]] and [[Esther]] are the only women with books that bear their name.

Women are portrayed subverting male-dominated power structures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holtz |first=Barry W. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=RpElAQAAMAAJ|page=31}}|title=Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts |date=1984 |publisher=Summit Books |isbn=978-0-671-45467-8 |language=en|pages=31–81}}</ref> Many Jewish women are considered foundational by feminists because they provide insights into life during those times. They are notable for breaking the male dominance of historical documentation. This is notable given the poor documentation of most women's lives at the time.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introducing the women's Hebrew Bible : feminism, gender justice, and the study of the Old Testament|author=Scholz, Susanne|date=10 August 2017|isbn=9780567663375|edition= Second|location=London|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|oclc=1005279889}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2019}}

According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the [[Israelites]] and the God of [[Abraham]] at [[Mount Sinai]]. The [[Torah study|Torah]] relates that Israelite men and women were present at Sinai; however, the covenant bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that household members (wives, children, and slaves) also met these requirements. In this sense, the covenant bound women, though indirectly.<ref name="HauptmanEtz">{{Cite book |editor-last=Lieber |editor-first=David L. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ddoCAAAACAAJ|page=1356}} |pages=1356–1359|title=Etz Hayim |date=2004 |publisher=Jewish Publication Society |isbn=978-0-8276-0804-7 |language=en|author-link=Judith Hauptman
|first=Judith |last=Hauptman |chapter=Women}}</ref>

Marriage and family law in biblical times gave men powers that it did not give to  women. For example, a husband could choose to divorce a wife, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of [[levirate marriage]] applied to widows of childless husbands, but not to widowers of childless wives; though, if either did not consent to the marriage, a ceremony called ''[[chalitza]]'' was done instead. The widow removes her brother-in-law's shoe, spits in front of him, and proclaims, "This is what happens to someone who will not build his brother's house!"

Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. Many of these laws, such as [[levirate marriage]], are no longer practiced (''[[Halizah|chalitzah]]'' is practiced instead of levirate marriage). These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount; however, they also suggest that women were to be subordinate to men.<ref name="HauptmanEtz" /> Men were required to perform specific duties for their wives, but these often reinforced gendered roles. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual service to their wives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Telushkin |first=Joseph |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=7SvRpW8Zdo4C|page=403}} |title=Biblical Literacy: The Most Important People, Events, and Ideas of the Hebrew Bible |date=2010-08-17 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-06-201301-9 |language=en|author-link=Joseph Telushkin|page= 403}}</ref>

Women participated in ritual life. Women were required to make pilgrimage to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] once a year (men should on each of the three main festivals if possible) and offer the [[Passover]] [[korban|sacrifice]]. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a ''todah'' ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-[[Levite|Levitical]] men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and more discreet scale.

According to Jewish tradition, [[Michal]], the daughter of [[Saul]] and [[David]]'s first wife, accepted the commandments of ''[[tefillin]]'' and ''[[tzitzit]]''. However, these requirements applied only to men.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.torahinmotion.org/discussions-and-blogs/eiruvin-95b-tefillin-women|title=Eiruvin 95b: Tefillin for Women|date=2013-06-18|website=Torah In Motion|language=en|access-date=2019-03-08}}</ref> Many of the ''mitzvot'' applied to both men and women; however, women were usually exempt from requirements to perform a duty at a specific time, as opposed to doing so at a convenient time or requirements to abstain from an act).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etzion.org.il/en/women%E2%80%99s-status-part-3-positive-time-bound-mitzvot|title=Women's Status, Part 3: Positive Time-Bound Mitzvot|last=ריפקין|first=אנדי|date=2018-12-26|website=www.etzion.org.il|language=en|access-date=2019-03-08}}</ref> Two prominent theories attempt to explain this: pragmatism (because women's duties consume their time) and spirituality (because "women have superior inherent spiritual wisdom", known as [[Binah (Kabbalah)|bina]], that makes them less dependent than men on religious practices to retain a strong spiritual connection to God).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.jpost.com/Magazine/Personal-Notes/Why-do-Orthodox-women-not-wear-tefillin-or-tallit|title=Why do Orthodox women not wear tefillin or tallit? - Magazine - Jerusalem Post|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post &#124; Jpost.com|access-date=2019-03-08}}</ref>

Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who did not bear sons. Even in such cases, "women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings".<ref name="HauptmanEtz" />