Editing Wisdom (section)

==Etymology and overview==
===Etymology===
The English word wisdom originates from the Old English wīsdōm, which is derived from wīs ("wise") and dōm ("judgment, decision, law").<ref>{{cite book |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |orig-year=2001 |year=2024 |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/wisdom}}</ref> The [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] root wis- ("to see, to know") connects wisdom to perception and insight. Related terms appear in [[Old High German]] (wīssag, "prophetic"), [[Old Norse]] (vísdómr), and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] (weisdumbs).<ref>{{cite book |last=Watkins |first=Calvert |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots |orig-year=1985 |year=2011 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt}}</ref>

In Ancient Greek, wisdom is expressed as σοφία (''sophia''), often referring to both practical skill and philosophical insight. The term was central to Greek philosophy, particularly in Plato's and Aristotle's discussions on virtue.<ref>{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |title=The Presocratic Philosophers |orig-year=1979 |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> The Latin equivalent, ''sapientia'', derives from ''sapere'' ("to taste, to discern"), emphasizing wisdom as discerning between right and wrong.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Charlton T. |title=A Latin Dictionary |orig-year=1879 |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Similar concepts exist in non-Indo-European languages:

* [[Sanskrit]]: ''Jñāna'' (ज्ञान) and ''viveka'' (विवेक) refer to intellectual and spiritual wisdom in Hindu thought.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=Sarvepalli |title=Indian Philosophy |orig-year=1923 |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
* [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: Zhì (智) represents wisdom as practical intelligence, central to Confucian ethics.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Ames |first=Roger T. |title=The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation |year=1999 |publisher=Ballantine Books}}</ref>
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: Chokhmah (חָכְמָה) in the Hebrew Bible is linked to divine and moral wisdom.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clifford |first=Richard |title=The Wisdom Literature |orig-year=1998 |year=2007 |publisher=Abingdon Press}}</ref>

===Historical overview===

Wisdom has been a central concept in philosophy, religion, and literature across ancient civilizations.

The earliest wisdom literature comes from [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] and [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian]] texts. In Sumerian tradition, wisdom (''me'') was considered a divine principle given by the gods, recorded in [[Proverb|proverbs]] and [[Myth|myths]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kramer |first=Samuel Noah |title=The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character |orig-year=1963 |year=1991 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref> Egyptian wisdom texts, such as the [[Maxims of Ptahhotep]] (c. 2400 BCE), emphasized moral conduct and social harmony.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parkinson |first=R. B. |title=The Wisdom Texts from Ancient Egypt |orig-year=1991 |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Wisdom became a major theme in Greek philosophy. Socrates equated wisdom with knowing one's own ignorance, while Plato argued that wisdom was the highest form of knowledge.<ref>{{cite book |last=Plato |title=The Republic |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Classics}}</ref> Aristotle distinguished between practical wisdom (''phronesis'') and theoretical wisdom (''sophia''), defining wisdom as the ability to deliberate well about the good life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |orig-year=4th century BCE |year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

In Roman philosophy, wisdom (''sapientia'') was regarded as the virtue of the [[Stoicism|Stoic]] sage. [[Cicero]] and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] viewed wisdom as self-discipline and rational living, essential for achieving inner tranquility (''ataraxia'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Long |first=Anthony A. |title=Hellenistic Philosophy |orig-year=1974 |year=1986 |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>

Wisdom also developed as a spiritual concept in various traditions:

* Biblical wisdom literature: Books like [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Book of Job|Job]] depict wisdom as both divine and practical, often contrasting human knowledge with divine omniscience.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crenshaw |first=James L. |title=Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction |orig-year=1981 |year=2010 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}</ref>
* Buddhism: Wisdom (''prajñā'') is one of the [[Threefold Training|threefold trainings]] leading to enlightenment, developed through meditation and ethical conduct.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhism |orig-year=1990 |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>
* Islamic philosophy: The Arabic term ''hikmah'' (حكمة) refers to wisdom as both divine insight and rational philosophy, deeply influenced by Aristotle, [[Avicenna]], and [[Al-Farabi]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study |orig-year=1976 |year=2001 |publisher=World Wisdom}}</ref>