Editing William of Ockham (section)

==Life==
William of Ockham was born in [[Ockham, Surrey]], around 1287.<ref name="Larsen2011">{{cite book |last=Larsen |first=Andrew E. |title=The School of Heretics: Academic Condemnation at the University of Oxford, 1277–1409 |chapter=The Investigation into William of Ockham |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |page=76 |doi=10.1163/9789004206625_006 |isbn=978-90-04-20662-5}}</ref> He received his elementary education in the London House of the [[Greyfriars, London|Greyfriars]].<ref>''Medieval Philosophy of Religion: The History of Western Philosophy of Religion'', Volume 2,  Graham Oppy & N. N. Trakakis (2014, p. 195)</ref> It is believed that he then studied theology at the [[University of Oxford]]<ref name=Spade20>Spade, Paul Vincent (ed.). ''The Cambridge Companion to Ockham''. Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 20.</ref><ref name=Merton>He has long been claimed as a [[Merton College, Oxford|Merton]] alumnus, but there is no contemporary evidence to support this claim and as a Franciscan, he would have been ineligible for fellowships at Merton (see G. H. Martin and J. R. L. Highfield, ''A History of Merton College'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 53). The claim that he was a pupil of [[Duns Scotus]] at Oxford is also disputed (see Philip Hughes, ''History of the Church: Volume 3: The Revolt Against The Church: Aquinas To Luther'', Sheed and Ward, 1979, p. 119 n. 2).</ref> from 1309 to 1321,<ref>During that time (1312–1317) [[Henry Harclay]] was the [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] of Oxford and it is believed that William was his pupil (see John Marenbon (ed.), ''Medieval Philosophy'', Routledge, 2003, p. 329).</ref> but while he completed all the requirements for a master's degree in theology, he was never made a [[regent master]].<ref name="stanford">{{cite encyclopedia |title=William of Ockham |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ockham/ |publisher=Stanford University |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |author=Spade, Paul Vincent |access-date=22 October 2006}}</ref> Because of this he acquired the honorific title {{lang|la|Venerabilis Inceptor}}, or "Venerable Beginner" (an {{lang|la|inceptor}} was a student formally admitted to the ranks of teachers by the university authorities).<ref name="Brundage">{{cite book |last=Brundage |first=James |author-link=James A. Brundage |chapter=Canon Law in the Law schools |title=The history of medieval canon law in the classical period |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |editor1-first=Wilfried |editor1-last=Hartmann |editor2-first=Kenneth |editor2-last=Pennington |year=2008 |page=115 |isbn=978-0-8132-1491-7}}</ref>

During the [[Middle Ages]], theologian [[Peter Lombard]]'s ''[[Sentences]]'' (1150) had become a standard work of theology, and many ambitious theological scholars wrote commentaries on it.<ref name="Roger Olson p. 350">Olson, Roger E. (1999). ''The Story of Christian Theology'', p. 350. {{ISBN|0-8308-1505-8}}</ref> William of Ockham was among these scholarly commentators. However, William's commentary was not well received by his colleagues, or by the Church authorities.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Moody |first=Ernest |title=William of Ockham |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K3446802128/BIC?u=lom_waynesu&sid=BIC&xid=90d7a6aa |date=2006 |publisher=Gale |location=Detroit}}</ref> In 1324, his commentary was condemned as unorthodox and he was ordered to [[Avignon]], France, to defend himself before the papal court.<ref name="Roger Olson p. 350"/>

An alternative understanding, recently proposed by George Knysh, suggests that he was initially appointed in Avignon as a professor of philosophy in the Franciscan school, and that his disciplinary difficulties did not begin until 1327.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Knysh |first=George |title=Biographical rectifications concerning William's Avignon period |journal=Franciscan Studies |volume=46 |year=1986 |pages=61–91 |jstor=41975065 |doi=10.1353/frc.1986.0020 |s2cid=162369468}}</ref> It is generally believed that these charges were levied by [[List of chancellors of the University of Oxford|Oxford chancellor]] [[John Lutterell]].<ref name="hundersmarck">{{cite book |last=Hundersmarck |first=Lawrence |title=Great Thinkers of the Western World |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatthinkersofw00ianp/page/123 123–128] |isbn=0-06-270026-X |url=https://archive.org/details/greatthinkersofw00ianp/page/123}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://wotug.org/parallel/www/occam/occam-bio.html |title=William of Occam |website=wotug.org}}</ref> The [[Franciscan Minister General]], [[Michael of Cesena]], had been summoned to Avignon, to answer charges of heresy. A theological commission had been asked to review his ''Commentary on the Sentences'', and it was during this that William of Ockham found himself involved in a different debate. Michael of Cesena had asked William to review arguments surrounding [[Apostolic poverty]]. The Franciscans believed that [[Jesus]] and his [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]] owned no property either individually or in common, and the [[Rule of Saint Francis]] commanded members of the order to follow this practice.<ref name="mcgrade">{{cite book |last=McGrade |first=Arthur |title=The Political Thought of William of Ockham: Personal and Institutional Principles |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1974 |isbn=0-521-20284-1}}</ref> This brought them into conflict with [[Pope John XXII]].

Because of the pope's attack on the Rule of Saint Francis, William of Ockham, [[Michael of Cesena]] and other leading Franciscans fled Avignon on 26 May 1328, and eventually took refuge in the court of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Louis IV of Bavaria]], who was also engaged in dispute with the papacy, and became William's patron.<ref name="Roger Olson p. 350"/> After studying the works of John XXII and previous papal statements, William agreed with the Minister General. In return for protection and patronage William wrote treatises that argued for Emperor Louis to have supreme control over church and state in the Holy Roman Empire.<ref name="Roger Olson p. 350"/> "On June 6, 1328, William was officially excommunicated for leaving Avignon without permission",<ref name="stanford"/> and William argued that John XXII was a heretic for attacking the doctrine of Apostolic poverty and the Rule of Saint Francis, which had been endorsed by previous popes.<ref name="stanford"/> William of Ockham's philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical.<ref name="stanford"/>

He spent much of the remainder of his life writing about political issues, including the relative authority and rights of the spiritual and temporal powers. After [[Michael of Cesena]]'s death in 1342, William became the leader of the small band of Franciscan dissidents living in exile with Louis IV. William of Ockham died (prior to the outbreak of the plague) on either 9 or 10 April 1347.<ref name="Gedeon1982">{{cite journal |last=Gál |first=Gedeon |year=1982 |title=William of Ockham Died 'Impenitent' in April 1347 |journal=Franciscan Studies |volume=42 |pages=90–95 |jstor=41974990 |doi=10.1353/frc.1982.0011 |s2cid=201793525 |quote=According to Fr. Herman ... died on April 9, 1347. A chronicler's note suggests that he died on April 10 ... Ockham's epitaph agrees with the chronicler .... How the question of whether Ockham died on the 9th or 10th is resolved is of no importance ... [and] may be due to a simple oversight.}}</ref>