Editing Wessex (section)

== History ==
=== Prehistoric Britain ===

{{Main|Prehistoric Britain}}
From the [[Neolithic]] onwards the [[chalk]] [[downland]] of the area that would become Wessex was traversed by the [[Harrow Way]], which can still be traced from [[Marazion]] in Cornwall to the coast of the [[English Channel]] near Dover, and was probably connected with the [[ancient tin trade]]. In the [[Late Neolithic]], the ceremonial sites of [[Avebury]] and [[Stonehenge]] were completed on [[Salisbury Plain]], but the final phase of Stonehenge was erected by the so-called "[[Wessex culture]]" of the [[Middle Bronze Age]] ({{circa|1600–1200 BC}}).  The area has many other earthworks and erected stone monuments from the Neolithic and Early Bronze periods, including the [[Dorset Cursus]], an earthwork {{cvt|10|km|mi|0}} long and {{cvt|100|m|yd}} wide, which was oriented to the midwinter sunset. Although agriculture and hunting were pursued during this long period, there is little archaeological evidence of human settlements. By the [[Iron Age]], [[Iron Age tribes in Britain|Celtic British tribes]] such as the [[Durotriges]], [[Atrebates]], [[Belgae]] and [[Dobunni]] occupied the future Wessex.

=== Roman Britain ===
{{Main|Roman Britain}}
Following the [[Roman conquest of Britain]], from the 1st century AD, numerous country [[Roman villa]]s with attached farms were established across Wessex, along with the important towns of [[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]] and [[Winchester]] (the ending -chester comes from [[Latin]] ''castra'', "a military camp"). The Romans, or rather the [[Romano-British]], built another major road that integrated Wessex, running eastwards from Exeter through Dorchester to Winchester and [[Silchester]] and on to [[London]].

In the mid-4th century there were increasing raids on Roman Britain by peoples such as the [[Picts]], [[Scottish people]], [[Attacotti]], and [[Franks]], as well as the Saxons. In 367, these tribes simultaneously [[Great Conspiracy|invaded Britain]] from the north, west and east. The invaders reportedly defeated or co-opted Roman forces in most parts of northern and western Britain. However, the Roman general [[Count Theodosius|Theodosius]] had recaptured most areas by the end of 368.<ref name="Blair2003">{{Harvp|Hunter Blair|Keynes|2006|p=2}}</ref> In 380–1, [[Magnus Maximus]] defeated further raids. However, there was increasing internal conflict across the Roman Empire. During 383–4, in the context of the overthrow of Emperor [[Gratian]], Maximus took most of the garrison from Britain to Gaul, where he was made [[Augustus (title)|Augustus of the West]], ruling Britain, Gaul, Spain and Roman Africa.  Following the death of Maximus in 388, Roman authority in Britain again declined.  During the late 390s, [[Stilicho]] attempted to restore control, with a campaign against the Picti, but this was undermined in 401 when Stilicho transferred troops to the Continent to fight the [[Goths]]. Two subsequent Roman rulers of Britain were murdered. In 407, a Roman officer in Britain, [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine III]] declared himself Augustus of the West, and left for Gaul, taking with him Roman troops. Finally, in 410, when Romano-British officials requested military assistance from Emperor [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]], he told them to manage their own defences.<ref>{{Harvp|Hunter Blair|Keynes|2006|pp=2–3}}</ref> Economic decline occurred after these events: circulation of Roman coins ended and the importation of items from the Roman Empire stopped.<ref>{{Harvp|Hunter Blair|Keynes|2006|p=3}}</ref><ref>
{{Harvp|Yorke|1995|p=11}}</ref>

=== Anglo-Saxon settlement ===
{{Main|Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain}}
[[Image:Cherdik - John Speed.JPG|thumb|Imaginary depiction of Cerdic from [[John Speed]]'s 1611 "Saxon Heptarchy"]]Theories about the settlement of Saxons, Jutes and Angles in Britain are divided into two categories by the historian [[Peter Hunter Blair]] (1956), namely "Welsh" and "English". 

==== The Welsh tradition ====

The Welsh tradition is exemplified by [[Gildas]], in ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]''. In brief, it states that after the Romans left, the [[Celtic Britons]] managed to continue for a time without any major disruptions. However, when finally faced with northern invaders, a certain unnamed ruler in Britain (called "a proud tyrant" by Gildas) requested assistance from the [[Saxons]] in exchange for land. 

There were no conflicts between the British and the Saxons for a time, but following "a dispute about the supply of provisions" the Saxons warred against the British and severely damaged parts of the country. In time, however, some Saxon troops left Britain; under [[Ambrosius Aurelianus]], the British subsequently defeated those who remained. 

A lengthy conflict ensued, in which neither side gained any decisive advantage until the Britons routed the Saxons at the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus]]. After this, there occurred a peaceful period for the Britons, under which Gildas was living at the time he wrote the ''De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae''.<ref>Blair 2003, pp. 13–14</ref> 

==== The English tradition ====

One of the "English" traditions about the Saxon arrival concerns [[Hengest and Horsa]]. When [[Bede]] wrote his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', he adapted Gildas' narrative and added details, such as the names of those involved. To the "proud tyrant" he gave the name [[Vortigern]], and the Saxon commanders he named Hengest and Horsa. 

Further details were added to the story in the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'', which was partially written by [[Nennius]]. According to the ''Historia'', Hengest and Horsa fought the invaders of Britain under the condition of gaining the Island of [[Isle of Thanet|Thanet]]. The daughter of Hengest, Rowena, later arrived on a ship of reinforcements, and Vortigern married her. 

However, a war arose in Kent due to a dispute between Hengest and Vortigern's son. After losing several battles, the Saxons finally defeated the British by treacherously attacking them once the two parties had convened for a meeting. Some additional details of the Hengest and Horsa legend are found in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''. The ''Chronicle'' then records subsequent Saxon arrivals, including that of Cerdic, the founder of Wessex, in 495.<ref>Blair 2003, pp. 14–16</ref>

==== The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ====

According to the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', [[Cerdic of Wessex]] and his son [[Cynric of Wessex]] landed in southern Hampshire in 495, but this account is not regarded by historians as reliable due to duplication of ''Chronicle'' entries and evidence that the area was first occupied by [[Jutes]]. Although the entry mentions Cynric as Cerdic's son, a different source lists him as the son of Cerdic's son, [[Creoda of Wessex]].<ref name="Yorke2002">{{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=Yorke |title=Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England |date=1990 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134707249 |pages=130–131}}</ref> 

The ''Chronicle'' continues, stating that "Port, and his two sons Bieda and Mægla", landed at [[Portsmouth]] in 501 and killed a high-ranking British nobleman.<ref name="Giles, p. 9">Giles, p. 9</ref> In 508, Cerdic and Cynric slew British king [[Natanleod]] along with five thousand of his men<ref name="Giles, p. 9"/> (though the historicity of Natanleod has been disputed),<ref>Yorke 2002, p. 4</ref> and Cerdic became the first king of Wessex in 519. 

The Saxons attacked Cerdicesford<ref>"Cerdicesford" is known with certainty to be [[Charford]]. (Major, p. 11)</ref> in 519, intending to cross the [[River Avon, Hampshire|River Avon]] and block a road which connected [[Old Sarum]] and [[Badbury Rings]], a British stronghold. The battle appears to have ended as a draw, and the expansion of Wessex ended for about thirty years. This is likely due to losses suffered during the battle and an apparent peace agreement with the Britons. 

The battle of [[Mons Badonicus]] is believed to have been fought around this time. [[Gildas]] states that the Saxons were completely defeated in the battle, in which [[King Arthur]] participated according to [[Nennius]]. This defeat is not recorded in the ''Chronicle''.<ref>Major, Albany F. ''Early Wars of Wessex'' (1912), pp. 11–20</ref> The thirty-year period of peace was temporarily interrupted<ref>Major, p. 19</ref> when, according to the ''Chronicle'', the Saxons conquered the [[Isle of Wight]] in 530 at a battle near [[Carisbrooke]].<ref name="Giles, p. 9"/>

Cynric became the ruler of Wessex after Cerdic died in 534, and reigned for twenty-six years.<ref name="Giles, p. 9"/> The sources do agree that [[Ceawlin]], who succeeded Cynric in about 581, is the son of Cynric; he usually is named as the father of Cuthwine.<ref>See the "Genealogical Tables" in the appendices to Swanton, ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''.</ref> Ceawlin's reign is thought to be more reliably documented than those of his predecessors, though the ''Chronicle'''s dates of 560 to 592 are different from the revised chronology. Ceawlin overcame pockets of resisting Britons to the northeast, in the [[Chilterns]], [[Gloucestershire]] and [[Somerset]]. The capture of [[Cirencester]], [[Gloucester]] and [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]] in 577, after the pause caused by the battle of Mons Badonicus, opened the way to the southwest.

Ceawlin is one of the seven kings named in Bede's ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'' as holding ''"imperium"'' over the southern English: the ''Chronicle'' later repeated this claim, referring to Ceawlin as a ''[[bretwalda]]'', or "Britain-ruler". Ceawlin was deposed, perhaps by his nephew, [[Ceol]], and died a year later. 

Six years later, in about 594, Ceol was succeeded by a brother, [[Ceolwulf of Wessex|Ceolwulf]], who was succeeded in his turn in about 617 by [[Cynegils of Wessex]]. The genealogies do not agree on Cynegils' pedigree: his father is variously given as Ceola, Ceolwulf, Ceol, Cuthwine, Cutha or Cuthwulf.

The tradition embodied in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', and in the genealogies of the West Saxon dynasty, is open to considerable doubt. This is largely because the founder of the dynasty and a number of his alleged descendants had [[Common Brittonic|Brittonic]] Celtic, rather than Anglo-Saxon Germanic, names.<ref>Kenneth Jackson (1953) ''Language and History in Early Britain.'' Edinburgh. pp. 554, 557, 613 and 680.</ref> The name Cerdic is derived from the British name Caraticos.<ref>Parsons, D. (1997) ''British Caraticos, Old English Cerdic'', Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies, 33, pp, 1–8.</ref><ref>J.T. Koch  (2006) Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, {{ISBN|1851094407}}, pp. 394–395</ref> This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton, and that his dynasty became anglicised over time.<ref>J.T. Koch (2006) Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, {{ISBN|1851094407}}, pp. 392–393</ref><ref>Yorke 1995, pp. 190–191</ref><ref>J.N.L. Myres (1989) The English Settlements. Oxford University Press, pp. 146–147</ref> Other members of the dynasty possessing Celtic names include [[Ceawlin]] and [[Cædwalla]]. Cædwalla, who died as late as 689, was the last West Saxon king to possess a Celtic name.<ref>Yorke, B. (1990), ''Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England,'' London: Seaby, {{ISBN|1852640278}} pp.138–139</ref>

=== Christianisation of Wessex ===

{{Main|Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England}}

[[File:England green top.svg|thumb|right|325px|The Celtic and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in around 600]]

[[Cynegils]]' reign saw the first event in West Saxon history that can be dated with reasonable certainty: the [[baptism]] of Cynegils by [[Birinus]], at the end of the 630s, perhaps in 640. Birinus was then established as bishop of the West Saxons, with his seat at [[Dorchester-on-Thames]]. This was the first [[religious conversion|conversion]] to [[Christianity]] by a West Saxon king, but it was not accompanied by the immediate conversion of all the West Saxons: Cynegils' successor (and probably his son), [[Cenwealh]], who came to the throne in about 642, was a [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|pagan]] at his accession. However, he too was baptised only a few years later and Wessex became firmly established as a Christian kingdom. Cynegils' godfather was King [[Oswald of Northumbria]], and his conversion may have been connected with an alliance against King [[Penda of Mercia]], who had previously attacked Wessex.

These attacks marked the beginning of sustained pressure from the expanding kingdom of [[Mercia]]. In time this would deprive Wessex of its territories north of the [[Thames]] and the [[River Avon, Bristol|(Bristol) Avon]], encouraging the kingdom's reorientation southwards. Cenwealh married [[Penda]]'s daughter, and when he repudiated her, Penda again invaded and drove him into exile for some time, perhaps three years. The dates are uncertain but it was probably in the late 640s or early 650s.  He spent his exile in [[Kingdom of East Anglia|East Anglia]], and was converted to Christianity there. After his return, Cenwealh faced further attacks from Penda's successor [[Wulfhere]], but was able to expand West Saxon territory in [[Somerset]] at the expense of the [[Brython|Britons]]. He established a second bishopric at [[Winchester]], while the one at [[Dorchester, Oxfordshire|Dorchester]] was soon abandoned as Mercian power pushed southwards.

After Cenwealh's death in 673, his widow, [[Seaxburh of Wessex|Seaxburh]], held the throne for a year; she was followed by [[Aescwine of Wessex|Æscwine]], who was apparently descended from another brother of Ceawlin. This was one of several occasions when the kingship of Wessex is said to have passed to a remote branch of the royal family with an unbroken male line of descent from Cerdic; these claims may be genuine, or may reflect the spurious assertion of descent from Cerdic to legitimise a new dynasty. Æscwine's reign only lasted two years, and in 676 the throne passed back to the immediate family of Cenwealh with the accession of his brother [[Centwine of Wessex]]. Centwine is known to have fought and won battles against the [[Britons (historic)|Briton]]s, but the details have not survived.

Centwine was succeeded by another supposed distant relative, [[Cædwalla]], who claimed descent from Ceawlin. Cædwalla reigned for just two years, but achieved a dramatic expansion of the kingdom's power, conquering the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Sussex|Sussex]], [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] and the [[Isle of Wight]], although Kent regained its independence almost immediately and Sussex followed some years later. His reign ended in 688 when he abdicated and went on pilgrimage to Rome, where he was baptised by [[Pope Sergius I]] but died soon afterwards. [[Bokerley Dyke]] appears to have been fortified around this period, and the former Roman Road at [[Ackling Dyke]] blocked by the Britons to prevent the West Saxons' advance into [[Dorset]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hinton |first=David A. |title=Saxons & Vikings |publisher=Dovecote Press |year=1998 |isbn=1874336504 |pages=19}}</ref> Evidence suggests that Dorset, north Hampshire, eastern Devon and southern Wiltshire were substantially under West Saxon control by the beginning of the reign of [[Cædwalla of Wessex]] in 685, but details of their conquest are unclear.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yorke |first=Barbara |title=Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134707256 |pages=137 }}</ref>

His successor was [[Ine of Wessex|Ine]], who also claimed to be a descendant of Cerdic through Ceawlin, but again through a long-separated line of descent. Ine was the most durable of the West Saxon kings, reigning for 38 years. He issued the oldest surviving English code of laws apart from those of the kingdom of Kent, and established a second West Saxon bishopric at [[Sherborne]], covering the area west of [[Selwood Forest]], which formed an important boundary between east and west Wessex. Near the end of his life he followed in Cædwalla's footsteps by abdicating and making a pilgrimage to Rome. The throne then passed to a series of other kings who claimed descent from Cerdic, but whose supposed genealogies and relationship to one another are unknown.

During the 8th century Wessex was overshadowed by Mercia, whose power was then at its height, and the West Saxon kings may at times have acknowledged Mercian overlordship. They were, however, able to avoid the more substantial control which Mercia exerted over smaller kingdoms. During this period Wessex continued its gradual advance to the west, overwhelming the British kingdom of [[Dumnonia]] ([[Devon]]). At this time Wessex took ''[[de facto]]'' control of much of Devon, although Britons retained a degree of independence in Devon until at least the 10th century. ([[William of Malmesbury]] claimed that the Britons and Saxons inhabited Exeter "as equals" until 927.) As a result of the Mercian conquest of the northern portion of its early territories in [[Gloucestershire]] and [[Oxfordshire]], the [[Thames]] and the [[River Avon, Bristol|Avon]] now probably formed the northern boundary of Wessex, while its heartland lay in [[Hampshire]], [[Wiltshire]], [[Berkshire]], [[Dorset]] and [[Somerset]]. The system of [[shire]]s which was later to form the basis of local administration throughout England (and eventually [[Ireland]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] as well) originated in Wessex, and had been established by the mid-8th century.

=== Hegemony of Wessex and the Viking raids ===
[[File:Viking weight combined only reflection.jpg|thumb|right|Anglo-Saxon–Viking coin weight, used for trading [[bullion]] and [[hacksilver]]. The material is [[lead]] and it weighs {{cvt|36|g}}. Embedded with an Anglo-Saxon [[sceat]] (Series K type 32a) dating to 720–750 and minted in Kent. It is edged in a dotted triangle pattern. Its origin is the [[Danelaw]] region and dates to 870–930]]

In 802 the fortunes of Wessex were transformed by the accession of [[Egbert of Wessex|Egbert]] who came from a [[cadet branch]] of the ruling dynasty that claimed descent from Ine's brother [[Ingild of Wessex|Ingild]]. With his accession the throne became firmly established in the hands of a single lineage. Early in his reign he conducted two campaigns against the "[[West Welsh]]", first in 813 and then again at [[Gafulford]] in 825. During the course of these campaigns he conquered the western Britons still in Devon and reduced those beyond the [[River Tamar]], now [[Cornwall]], to the status of a [[vassal]].<ref>Major, Albany F. ''Early Wars of Wessex'', p.105</ref> In 825 or 826 he overturned the political order of England by decisively defeating King [[Beornwulf of Mercia]] at [[Ellendun]] and seizing control of [[Surrey]], Sussex, Kent and [[Essex]] from the Mercians, while with his help [[East Anglia]] broke away from Mercian control. In 829 he conquered Mercia, driving its King [[Wiglaf of Mercia|Wiglaf]] into exile, and secured acknowledgement of his overlordship from the king of [[Northumbria]]. He thereby became the [[Bretwalda]], or high king of Britain. This position of dominance was short-lived, as Wiglaf returned and restored Mercian independence in 830, but the expansion of Wessex across south-eastern England proved permanent.

Egbert's later years saw the beginning of [[Denmark|Danish]] [[Viking]] raids on Wessex, which occurred frequently from 835 onwards. In 851 a huge Danish army, said to have been carried on 350 ships, arrived in the Thames estuary. Having defeated King [[Beorhtwulf of Mercia]] in battle, the Danes moved on to invade Wessex, but were decisively crushed by Egbert's son and successor King [[Æthelwulf]] in the exceptionally bloody [[Battle of Aclea]]. This victory postponed Danish conquests in England for fifteen years, but raids on Wessex continued.

In 855–856 Æthelwulf went on [[pilgrimage]] to [[Rome]] and his eldest surviving son [[Aethelbald of Wessex|Æthelbald]] took advantage of his absence to seize his father's throne. On his return, Æthelwulf agreed to divide the kingdom with his son to avoid bloodshed, ruling the new territories in the east while Æthelbald held the old heartland in the west. Æthelwulf was succeeded by each of his four surviving sons ruling one after another: the rebellious Æthelbald, then [[Ethelbert of Wessex|Æthelbert]], who had previously inherited the eastern territories from his father and who reunited the kingdom on Æthelbald's death, then Æthelred, and finally [[Alfred the Great]]. This occurred because the first two brothers died in wars with the Danes without issue, while Æthelred's sons were too young to rule when their father died.

=== Last English kingdom ===
[[File:England 878.svg|thumb|right|300px|England in the late 9th century]]

In 865, several of the Danish commanders combined their respective forces into one large army and landed in England. Over the following years, what became known as the [[Great Heathen Army]] overwhelmed the kingdoms of [[Northumbria]] and East Anglia. Then in 871, the [[Great Summer Army]] arrived from [[Scandinavia]], to reinforce the Great Heathen Army. The reinforced army invaded Wessex and, although Æthelred and Alfred won some victories and succeeded in preventing the conquest of their kingdom, a number of defeats and heavy losses of men compelled Alfred to pay the Danes to leave Wessex.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/alfred_the_great.shtml|title=BBC – History – Alfred the Great|publisher=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hooper |first1=Nicholas Hooper |last2=Bennett |first2=Matthew |title=The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: the Middle Ages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |pages=22–23 |isbn=0521440491}}</ref> The Danes spent the next few years subduing [[Mercia]] and some of them settled in Northumbria, but the rest returned to Wessex in 876. Alfred responded effectively and was able with little fighting to bring about their withdrawal in 877. A portion of the Danish army settled in Mercia, but at the beginning of 878 the remaining Danes mounted a winter invasion of Wessex, taking Alfred by surprise and overrunning much of the kingdom. Alfred was reduced to taking refuge with a small band of followers in the marshes of the [[Somerset Levels]], but after a few months he was able to gather an army and defeated the Danes at the [[Battle of Edington]], bringing about their final withdrawal from Wessex to settle in East Anglia. There were simultaneous Danish raids on the north coast of France and [[Brittany]] in the 870s – prior to the establishment of [[Normandy]] in 911 – and recorded Danish alliances with both [[Salomon, King of Brittany|Bretons]] and Cornish may have resulted in the suppression of Cornish autonomy with the death by drowning of King [[Donyarth]] in 875 as recorded by the [[Annales Cambriae]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/BritainDumnonia.htm|title=Celtic Kingdoms of the British Isles: Dumnonii|work=The History Files|access-date=27 December 2015}}</ref> No subsequent 'Kings' of Cornwall are recorded after this time, but [[Asser]] records Cornwall as a separate kingdom from Wessex in the 890s.<ref>Albert S. Cook, Asser's life of King Alfred, 1906</ref>

In 879 a Viking fleet that had assembled in the Thames estuary sailed across the English Channel to start a new campaign on the continent. The rampaging Viking army on the continent encouraged Alfred to protect his Kingdom of Wessex.<ref name=sawyer57>{{Cite book |last=Sawyer |first=Peter |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings |year=2001 |edition=3rd |publisher= OUP |isbn=0192854348| page=57}}</ref> Over the following years Alfred carried out a dramatic reorganisation of the government and defences of Wessex, building warships, organising the army into two shifts which served alternately, and establishing a system of fortified ''[[burh]]s'' across the kingdom. This system is recorded in a 10th-century document known as the [[Burghal Hidage]], which details the location and garrisoning requirements of thirty-three forts, whose positioning ensured that no one in Wessex was more than a long day's ride from a place of safety.<ref>[http://www.ogdoad.force9.co.uk/alfred/alfhidage.htm The Burghal Hidage: Alfred's Towns]</ref> In the 890s these reforms helped him to repel the invasion of another huge Danish army – which was aided by the Danes settled in England – with minimal losses.

In 2015, two individuals found a large hoard near [[Leominster]] consisting primarily of Saxon jewellery and silver ingots but also coins; the latter date to around 879 CE. According to a news report, "experts believe it [the hoard] was buried by a Viking during a series of raids known to have taken place in the area at that time", while Wessex was ruled by Alfred the Great and Mercia by Ceolwulf II. Two imperial coins recovered from the treasure hunters depict the two kings, "indicating an alliance between the two kingdoms—at least, for a time—that was previously unknown to historians", according to the report.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newsweek.com/viking-treasure-rewrite-history-stolen-metal-detectorists-convicted-1473484 |title=MILLIONS OF DOLLARS OF VIKING TREASURE THAT COULD REWRITE HISTORY STOLEN, METAL DETECTORISTS CONVICTED |date=22 November 2019 |publisher=Newsweek |access-date=24 November 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-hereford-worcester-50461860 |title=Detectorists stole Viking hoard that 'rewrites history' |date=21 November 2019 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref> A report by [[The Guardian]] adds that<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/nov/21/detectorists-hid-find-that-rewrites-anglo-saxon-history |title=Detectorists stole Viking hoard that 'rewrites history' |date=21 November 2019 |work=The Guardian |access-date=24 November 2019 }}</ref>

<blockquote>"The presence of both kings on the two emperor coins suggests some sort of pact between the pair. But the rarity of the coins also suggests that Alfred quickly dropped his ally, who was just about written out of history".</blockquote>

Alfred also reformed the administration of justice, issued a new law code and championed a revival of scholarship and education. He gathered scholars from around England and Europe to his court, and with their help translated a range of [[Latin]] texts into English, doing much of the work personally, and orchestrated the composition of the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]. As a result of these literary efforts and the political dominance of Wessex, the [[West Saxon dialect]] of this period became the standard written form of [[Old English]] for the rest of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] period and beyond.

{| border="0" align="center" width="80%"
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!width=33% |[[File:Angleterre 871.png|center|310px]]
!width=33% |[[File:Angleterre 886.png|center|310px]]
!width=33% |[[File:Angleterre 897.png|center|310px]]
|-
|{{center|Wessex and areas under its control in 871.}}
|{{center|Wessex and areas under its control in 886.}}
|{{center|Wessex and areas under its control in 897.}}
|}

The Danish conquests had destroyed the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia and divided Mercia in half, with the Danes settling in the north-east while the south-west was left to the English king [[Ceolwulf II of Mercia|Ceolwulf]], allegedly a Danish puppet. When Ceolwulf's rule came to an end he was succeeded as ruler of "English Mercia" not by another king but by a mere [[ealdorman]], [[Earl Aethelred of Mercia|Aethelred]], who acknowledged Alfred's overlordship and married his daughter [[Ethelfleda]]. The process by which this transformation of the status of Mercia took place is unknown, but it left Alfred as the only remaining English king.

=== Unification of England; Earldom of Wessex ===

[[File:Eroberung des Danelags.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Unification of England and Defeat of the Danelaw in the 10th century under Wessex.]]
After the invasions of the 890s, Wessex and English [[Mercia]] continued to be attacked by the Danish settlers in England, and by small Danish raiding forces from overseas, but these incursions were usually defeated, while there were no further major invasions from the continent. The balance of power tipped steadily in favour of the English. In 911 Ealdorman [[Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians|Æthelred]] died, leaving his widow, Alfred's daughter [[Æthelflæd]], in charge of Mercia. Alfred's son and successor [[Edward the Elder]] then annexed London, [[Oxford]] and the surrounding area, probably including [[Middlesex]], [[Hertfordshire]], [[Buckinghamshire]] and [[Oxfordshire]], from Mercia to Wessex. Between 913 and 918 a series of English offensives overwhelmed the Danes of Mercia and East Anglia, bringing all of England south of the [[Humber]] under Edward's power. In 918 Æthelflæd died and Edward took over direct control of Mercia, extinguishing what remained of its independence and ensuring that henceforth there would be only one [[Kingdom of the English]]. In 927 Edward's successor [[Æthelstan]] conquered [[Northumbria]], bringing the whole of England under one ruler for the first time. The Kingdom of Wessex had thus been transformed into the [[Kingdom of England]].

Æthelstan never married, and when he died in 939 he was succeeded by his half-brother [[Edmund I|Edmund]]. Edmund's sons were young children when he died in 946, so he was succeeded by his full brother [[Eadred]]. Edmund and Eadred both lost control of Northumbria at the beginning of their reigns but had regained it by their deaths. Northumbria's acceptance of West Saxon rule in 954 meant the final unification of the kingdom of England. When Eadred died in 955, he was succeeded by Edmund's elder son Eadred, whose incompetent rule may have led to the division of England between Wessex under Eadred and Mercia and Northumbria under his younger brother [[Edgar, King of England|Edgar]] in 957, although some historians argue that it was intended from the start that the kingdom would be divided when Edgar came of age, which occurred in 957. Eadwig died in 959 and Edgar became king of the whole of England.

After the conquest of England by the Danish king [[Cnut]] in 1016, he established earldoms based on the former kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia, but initially administered Wessex personally. Within a few years, however, he had created an earldom of Wessex, encompassing all of England south of the Thames, for his English henchman [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex]]. For almost fifty years the vastly wealthy holders of this earldom, first Godwin and then his son [[Harold Godwinson]], were the most powerful men in English politics after the king. Finally, on the death of [[Edward the Confessor]] in 1066, Harold became king, reuniting the earldom of Wessex with the crown. No new earl was appointed before the ensuing [[Norman Conquest of England]], and as the Norman kings soon did away with the great earldoms of the late Anglo-Saxon period, 1066 marks the extinction of Wessex as a political unit.