Editing United Arab Republic (section)

==History==
===Origins===
{{Main|History of Egypt|History of Syria|Gaza Strip#History}}
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| caption1          = Flag of the [[Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)|Republic of Egypt]]
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| caption2          = Flag of the [[Second Syrian Republic|Syrian Republic]]
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| caption3          = Flag of the [[All-Palestine Protectorate|State of Palestine]]
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[[File:1958-02-03 First US Satellite Launched.ogv|thumb|thumbtime=2:29|start=105|right|[[Universal Newsreel]] about the founding of the Republic]]
[[File:Voting card for the Syrian referendum on unification with Egypt, 1958.jpg|left|thumb|208x208px|Voting card for the Syrian referendum on unification]]
The United Arab Republic was established on 1 February 1958<ref name="feb1">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96294492/egypt-syria-union-aims-at-arab-unity/|title=Egypt, Syria Union Aim at Arab Unity|work=The San Francisco Examiner|date=2 February 1958|agency=Associated Press|access-date=24 February 2022|archive-date=4 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104130338/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96294492/egypt-syria-union-aims-at-arab-unity/|url-status=live}}</ref> as the first step towards a larger [[Pan-Arabism|pan-Arab]] state, originally being proposed to Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] by a group of political and military leaders in [[Second Syrian Republic|Syria]].

[[Pan-Arabism|Pan-Arab sentiment]] traditionally was very strong in Syria, and Nasser was a popular heroic figure throughout the Arab world following the [[Suez Crisis|1956 Tripartite Aggression]]. There was thus considerable popular support in Syria for union with [[History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser's Egypt]]. The [[Ba'ath Party|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] was the leading advocate of such a union.<ref name="books.google.lv">{{cite book|author=James P. Jankowski|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0yN_dBBIxAwC|title=Nasser's Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|year=2002|isbn=9781588260345|access-date=2016-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010035402/https://books.google.com/books?id=0yN_dBBIxAwC|archive-date=2017-10-10|url-status=live}}</ref>

In mid-1957, Western powers began to worry that Syria was close to a Communist takeover; it had a highly organized [[Syrian Communist Party|Communist Party]] and the newly appointed [[Syrian Armed Forces|army]]'s chief of staff, [[Afif al-Bizri]], was a Communist sympathizer. This caused the [[Syrian Crisis of 1957]] after which Syrians intensified their efforts to unite with Egypt.<ref name=brti>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/615447/United-Arab-Republic-UAR|title=United Arab Republic (U.A.R.)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2012-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814103230/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/615447/United-Arab-Republic-UAR|archive-date=2012-08-14|url-status=live}}</ref> Nasser told a Syrian delegation, including [[President of Syria|President]] [[Shukri al-Quwatli]] and [[Prime Minister of Syria|Prime Minister]] [[Khalid al-Azm]], that they needed to rid their government of Communists, but the delegation countered and warned him that only total union with Egypt would end the "Communist threat".<ref name=brti /> According to [[Abdel Latif Boghdadi (politician)|Abdel Latif Boghdadi]], Nasser initially resisted a total union with Syria, favoring instead a [[Federalism|federal]] union. However, Nasser was "more afraid of a Communist takeover" and agreed on a total merger.<ref name=brti /> The increasing strength of the Syrian Communist Party, under the leadership of [[Khalid Bakdash]], worried the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Ba'ath Party]], which was suffering from an internal crisis from which prominent members were anxious to find an escape.<ref name=brti/> Syria had a democratic government since the overthrow of [[Adib Shishakli]]'s military government in 1954, and popular pressure for Arab unity was reflected in the [[1954 Syrian parliamentary election|composition of parliament]].<ref name=brti/>
[[File:Nasser with Syrian Delegation.jpg|thumbnail|right|Nasser shaking hands with al-Bizri]]

On 11 January 1958, the Syrian Chief of Staff Afif al-Bizri headed a Syrian delegation composed of military officers which came uninvited and unannounced to Cairo. The delegation was received by Egyptian Chief of Staff [[Abdel Hakim Amer]] and petitioned for a Syrian-Egyptian union. Only Syrian advocates of unity, including [[Salah al-Din al-Bitar]] and [[Akram al-Hourani]] had prior knowledge of this delegation; Quwatli and Azm were notified a day later and considered it tantamount to a "military coup".<ref name="Aburish151"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Podeh|1999|pp=43}}</ref>

Nasser's final terms for the union were decisive and non-negotiable: "a plebiscite, the dissolution of parties, and the withdrawal of the army from politics". While the plebiscite seemed reasonable to most Syrian elites, the latter two conditions were extremely worrisome. They believed it would destroy political life in Syria.<ref>{{Harvnb|Palmer|1966|pp=53}}</ref> Despite these concerns, the Syrian officials knew it was too late to turn back. Caught between Western and Soviet pressures, the members of the elite in Syria viewed the merger with Egypt as the least bad option to insulate from either side. They believed that Nasser's terms were unfair, but given the intense pressure that their government was undergoing, they believed that they had no other choice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hinnebusch |first=Raymond |url=https://www.google.ch/books/edition/The_International_Politics_of_the_Middle/DcEg3zHm7-wC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22united+arab+republic%22+merger,+syrian+elite,+unfair&printsec=frontcover |title=The International Politics of the Middle East |date=2003-07-18 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-5346-7 |pages=26 |language=en}}</ref>

A plebiscite was held on 21 February 1958, with Egyptians and Syrians voting in favor of the merger.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96295215/nasser-to-head-egypt-syria-union/|title=Nasser to Head Egypt-Syria Union|newspaper=The Nottingham Evening Post|date=22 February 1958|access-date=24 February 2022|archive-date=4 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104130336/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96295215/nasser-to-head-egypt-syria-union/|url-status=live}}</ref> The result was announced on 22 February<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96296582/nearly-all-voters-in-egypt-approve-arab/|title=Nearly All Voters in Egypt Approve Arab Republic|newspaper=The Pantagraph|location=Bloomington, Illinois|date=22 February 1958|access-date=24 February 2022|archive-date=4 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104130346/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96296582/nearly-all-voters-in-egypt-approve-arab/|url-status=live}}</ref> and Nasser was declared the new president of the United Arab Republic.<ref name=feb23>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96296879/cairo-wild-as-nasser-takes-post/|title=Cairo Wild as Nasser Takes Post|newspaper=Fort Lauderdale News|date=23 February 1958|access-date=24 February 2022|archive-date=4 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104130337/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96296879/cairo-wild-as-nasser-takes-post/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Egyptian and Syrian leaders signed the protocols, although Azm did so reluctantly.<ref>{{Harvnb|Podeh|1999|pp=49}}</ref> Nasser became the republic's president and very soon carried out a crackdown against the Syrian Communists and opponents of the union. This included dismissing Bizri and Azm from their posts.<ref name="Aburish151">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=150–151}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Podeh|1999|pp=44–45}}</ref>
[[File:NasserQuwatliUAR.jpg|thumb|right|Nasser signing unity pact with Syrian president [[Shukri al-Quwatli]], forming the United Arab Republic, 1 February 1958]]

===Early history===
Advocates of the union believed that Nasser would use the [[Ba'ath Party]] for ruling Syria. Unfortunately for the Ba'athists, it was never Nasser's intention to share an equal measure of power. Nasser established a new provisional constitution proclaiming a 600-member National Assembly with 400 members from Egypt and 200 from Syria, and the disbanding of all political parties, including the Ba'ath. Nasser gave each of the provinces two vice-presidents, assigning Boghdadi and [[Abdel Hakim Amer]] to Egypt and [[Sabri al-Asali]] and [[Akram al-Hourani]] – a leader of the Ba'ath – to Syria. The new [[Provisional Constitution of the United Arab Republic|provisional constitution of 1958]] was adopted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=162–163}}</ref>

Though Nasser allowed former Ba'ath Party members to hold prominent political positions, they never reached positions as high in the government as did the Egyptian officials. During the winter and the spring of 1959–60, Nasser slowly squeezed prominent Syrians out of positions of influence. In the [[Ministry of Industry (Syria)|Syrian Ministry of Industry]], for example, seven of the top thirteen positions were filled by Egyptians. In the General Petroleum Authority, four of the top six officials were Egyptian. In the fall of 1958, Nasser formed a tripartite committee, consisting of [[Zakaria Mohieddin]], al-Hawrani, and Bitar to oversee the affairs in Syria. By moving the latter two, both Ba'athists, to Cairo, he neutralized important political figures who had their own ideas about how Syria should be run within the UAR.<ref name="books.google.lv"/>

In Syria, opposition to union with Egypt mounted. [[Syrian Army]] officers resented being subordinate to Egyptian officers, and Syrian [[Bedouin]] tribes received money from [[Saudi Arabia]] to prevent them from becoming loyal to Nasser. Also, Egyptian-style land reform was resented for damaging Syrian agriculture, the Communists began to gain influence, and the intellectuals of the Ba'ath Party who supported the union rejected the [[One-party state|one-party system]]. Mustafa al-Barudi, the Syrian Minister of Propaganda, stated that 'the smallest member of the (Egyptian) retinue thought that he had inherited our country. [Egyptians] spread "like octopuses" everywhere.'<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tsourapas|first=Gerasimos|year=2016|title=Nasser's Educators and Agitators across al-Watan al-'Arabi: Tracing the Foreign Policy Importance of Egyptian Regional Migration, 1952–1967|url=http://www.gtsourapas.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/BJMES_Tsourapas.pdf|journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies|volume=43 | issue = 3 |pages=324–341|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120151508/http://www.gtsourapas.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/BJMES_Tsourapas.pdf|archive-date=2016-11-20|doi=10.1080/13530194.2015.1102708|s2cid=159943632}}</ref> Nasser was not able to address problems in Syria completely, because they were new to him, and instead of appointing Syrians to run Syria, he assigned this position to Amer and [[Abdul Hamid al-Sarraj]] (a Syrian army official and Nasser sympathizer).<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=185}}</ref>

In Egypt, the situation was more positive, with a GNP growth of 4.5 per cent and a rapid growth of industry. In 1960, Nasser nationalized the Egyptian press, reducing it to his personal mouthpiece.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=189–191}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
[[File:UAR and Arab Federation 1958.png|thumb|Middle East in 1958: United Arab Republic (red), [[United Arab States]] (red and light-red), [[Arab Federation]] (green), [[Emirate of Kuwait|British Kuwait]] (grass green), other [[British protectorate]]s in [[South Arabia|South]] and [[Eastern Arabia|East Arabia]] (light green)]]
The union was interpreted by the other nations of the world as a major threat to [[Jordan]]. Syria was seen as a source of instigation and shelter for Jordanian plotters against [[Hussein of Jordan|King Hussein]]. Egypt's own status as a state unfriendly to Western influence in the region (and thus to the close relationship between the British, in particular, and the Jordanian and Iraqi monarchies) added to the pressure. Hussein responded by proposing to [[Faisal II]] of [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]] a Jordanian-Iraqi union to counter the UAR; such a union formed on 14 February 1958, as the [[Arab Federation]]. Jordan and Iraq agreed to establish a unified military command with a unified military budget, 80 per cent of which was to be provided by Iraq and the remaining 20 per cent by Jordan. Troops from both countries were exchanged in the arrangement.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

In nearby [[Lebanon]], [[President of Lebanon|President]] [[Camille Chamoun]], an opponent of Nasser, viewed the creation of the UAR with worry. Pro-Nasser factions in the country were mostly Muslims and [[Druze]], while the [[Maronites|Christian Maronite]] population generally supported Chamoun. These two sides began clashing, culminating in a [[1958 Lebanon crisis|civil war]] by May 1958. The former favoured merging with the UAR, while the latter feared the new country as a satellite of [[Communism]]. Although Nasser did not covet Lebanon, seeing it as a special case,<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=164}}</ref> he felt obliged to back his supporters through giving [[Abdul Hamid al-Sarraj]] the task of sending them money and light arms, and training officers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=166}}</ref>

On 14 July 1958, Iraqi army officers staged a [[14 July Revolution|military coup]] and overthrew the [[Kingdom of Iraq]] – which had just previously united with Jordan to form the rival [[Arab Federation]]. Nasser declared his recognition of the new government and stated that "any attack on Iraq was tantamount to an attack on the UAR". The next day American marines and British special forces landed in Lebanon and in Jordan, respectively, to prevent the two countries from opening up to pro-Nasser forces. To Nasser, the revolution in Iraq opened the road for Arab nationalism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=169–170}}</ref> Although most members of the [[Revolutionary Command Council (Iraq)|Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council]] (RCC) favoured joining Iraq with the UAR, the new prime minister [[Abdul-Karim Qasim|Abdul Karim Qasim]] disagreed. [[Said Aburish]] states reasons for this could have included Nasser's refusal to cooperate with and encourage the Iraqi Free Officers a year before the coup – or Qasim viewed Nasser as a threat to his supremacy as leader of Iraq.<ref>{{Harvnb |Aburish|2004|p=172}}</ref>

Later in July, the American government convinced Chamoun not to seek a second term. This allowed the election of [[Fouad Chehab]] as Lebanon's new president. Nasser and Chehab met at the Lebanese–Syrian border and Nasser explained to Chehab that he never wanted unity with Lebanon, but only that the country not be used as a base against the UAR. This meeting resulted in the end of the crisis in Lebanon, with Nasser ceasing to supply his partisans and America setting a deadline for retreating from the area.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=173}}</ref>

After the [[14 July Revolution|overthrow]] of its [[Hashemites|Hashemite]] [[Kingdom of Iraq|monarchy]] in 1958, Iraq became the Arab state most supportive of the UAR. Iraq sought to join the union; however, in 1959 Qasim cancelled the unity talks. After Qasim's [[Ramadan Revolution|overthrow in 1963]] the union idea resurrected with the proposal of Egypt, Iraq, and Syria reforming the UAR. A new flag was proposed, with three stars symbolizing the three states constituting the proposed union. However, the plan for a tri-partite union never materialised. Iraq continued to use the three-star flag and later adopted it as the national [[Flag of Iraq|flag]]. This three-star flag remained Iraq's national flag (with some modifications) until 2007.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

===Flag===
{{Main|Flag of the United Arab Republic|Flag of Egypt|Flag of Syria#United Arab Republic and Ba'athist Syria}}
The UAR adopted a flag based on the [[Arab Liberation Flag]] of the [[1952 Egyptian revolution|Egyptian Revolution of 1952]], but with two stars to represent the two parts of the UAR. From 1980 to 2024 this was the official [[flag of Syria]]. In 1963, [[First Republic of Iraq|Iraq]] adopted a [[flag of Iraq|flag]] that was similar but with three stars, representing the hope that Iraq would join the UAR. The current flags of [[flag of Egypt|Egypt]], [[flag of Sudan|Sudan]] and [[flag of Yemen|Yemen]] are also based on the 1952 Arab Liberation Flag of horizontal red, white and black bands.

===Nationalization===
[[File:Nasser addressing Damascus, 1960.jpg|thumb|right|Nasser addressing the people of [[Damascus]], 1960]]
In June 1960, Nasser tried to establish economic reforms that would bring the Syrian economy more in line with the strong Egyptian public sector. However, these changes did little to help either economy. Rather than shift growth toward the private sector, Nasser embarked on an unprecedented wave of nationalizations in both [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. These began in July 1961, without consulting top Syrian economic officials.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1971|p=338}}</ref> The entire cotton trade was taken over by the government, as well as all import-export firms. Nasser announced the [[nationalization]] of banks, insurance companies, and all heavy industry, 23 July 1961. Nasser also extended his [[social justice]] principles. The land limit was reduced from 200 to 100 [[feddan]]s. Interest rates for farmers were dramatically reduced to the point of elimination in some cases. A ninety percent tax was instituted on all income above £E10,000. Workers and employees were allowed representatives on management boards. They were also given the right to a twenty-five percent share in the profit of their firm. The average workday was also cut from eight hours to seven without a reduction in pay.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1971|pp=329–30}}</ref>

===Culture===
Upon accepting the 1960 Best Supporting Actor award given to [[Hugh Griffith]] for his "wonderfully humorous, human, and sympathetic characterization of an Arab sheik" in ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' (1959), director [[William Wyler]] expressed regret that the people of the United Arab Republic would not be permitted to see Griffith's performance.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hugh Griffith Wins Supporting Actor: 1960 Oscars |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PXNC3Br9EM0 |publisher=Oscars |access-date=22 January 2024}}</ref>

===Dissolution===
{{main|1961 Syrian coup d'état}}
[[File:Nasser and Sarraj in Latakia.jpg|thumbnail|right|Nasser and Sarraj in Latakia, 1959]]
Instead of a federation of two Arab peoples, as many Syrians had imagined, the UAR turned into a state completely dominated by Egyptians. Syrian political life was also diminished, as Nasser demanded all political parties in Syria to be dismantled. In the process, the strongly centralized Egyptian state imposed Nasser's socialistic political and economic system on weaker Syria, creating a backlash from the Syrian business and army circles, which resulted in the Syrian coup of 28 September 1961, and the end of the UAR. According to Elie Podeh, "...this unity scheme was successful in consolidating the shaky Syrian identity. In fact, once the Syrians lost their independence they suddenly realized that they did indeed possess a different identity than the Egyptians."{{sfn|Podeh|1999}}{{page needed|date=February 2023}}

Despite the economic difficulties, what truly produced the demise of the UAR was Nasser's inability to find a suitable political system for the new regime. Given his [[Socialism|socialist]] agenda in Egypt, the [[Ba'ath Party|Ba'ath]] should have been his natural ally, but Nasser was hesitant to share power. Though Amer allowed some liberalization of the economy to appease Syrian businessmen, his decision to rig the elections of the [[National Union (United Arab Republic)|National Union]] (the single party which replaced the Ba'ath), with the help of Colonel [[Abdul Hamid Sarraj]] (a Syrian army official and Nasser sympathizer), antagonized Ba'athist leaders. The Ba'ath Party won only five percent of the seats on the higher committees, while the more traditional conservative parties won a significant majority.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1971|p=337}}</ref> Sarraj was appointed the head of the National Union in Syria, and by the spring of 1960 had replaced Amer as the chair of the Syrian Executive Council. Under Sarraj Syria was ruled by a repressive security force designed to suppress all opposition to the regime.

The immense increases in public sector control were accompanied by a push for [[centralisation]]. In August 1961 Nasser abolished regional governments in favour of one central authority, which operated from [[Damascus]] February through May and from [[Cairo]] for the rest of the year. As a part of this centralisation, Sarraj was relocated to Cairo, where he found himself with little real power. 15 September 1961, Sarraj returned to Syria, and after meeting with Nasser and Amer resigned from all his posts on 26 September.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1971|pp=338–339}}</ref>

Without any close allies to watch over Syria, Nasser was unaware of the growing unrest of the military. On 28 September a group of officers staged a coup and declared Syria's independence from the UAR. Though the coup leaders were willing to renegotiate a union under terms they felt would put Syria on an equal footing with Egypt, Nasser refused such a compromise. He initially considered sending troops to overthrow the new regime, but chose not to once he was informed that the last of his allies in Syria had been defeated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1971|p=340}}</ref> In speeches that followed the coup, Nasser declared he would never give up his goal of an ultimate Arab union. However, he would never again achieve such a tangible victory toward this goal.

===After Syria's withdrawal===
{{main|Six-Day War|War of Attrition}}

After Syria's withdrawal from the union in 1961, Egypt retained its "United Arab Republic" name until 1971.

In the early 1960s, Nasser sent an [[North Yemen civil war#Egyptian offensives|expeditionary army]] to Yemen to support the anti-monarchist forces in the [[North Yemen civil war|North Yemen Civil War]].

From 5 to 10 June in 1967, Israel invaded [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], the [[West Bank]], the [[Golan Heights]], and the [[Sinai Peninsula]] during the [[Six-Day War]]. Egypt recovered partial sovereignty over the Sinai Peninsula in 1978, but only after agreeing to recognize Israel. Anwar Sadat, who reversed many of the socialist reforms enacted under Nasser, extended diplomatic recognition to Israel despite their ongoing occupation of lands seized in 1967. Israel maintained an occupation of these territories and created illegal settlements. After 1994, the [[Palestinian Authority]], created by the [[Oslo Accords]], established a degree of Palestinian civil administration in Gaza.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information |first=Bureau of Public Affairs |date=13 December 2007 |title=The Oslo Accords, 1993 |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/pcw/97181.htm |access-date=2023-08-28 |website=2001-2009.state.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Israeli settlements: Where, when, and why they're built |work=Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2009/0915/p12s01-wome.html |access-date=2023-08-28 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref> Israel retreated from Gaza in 2005 was not followed by resumption of control by Egypt. Since 2007, [[Gaza Strip under Hamas|Gaza]] has been administered by the Palestinian party [[Hamas]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 May 2011 |title=Hamas: The Palestinian militant group that rules Gaza |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13331522 |access-date=2023-08-28}}</ref>