Editing United Arab Emirates (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of the United Arab Emirates}}

=== Antiquity ===
{{Main|Umm Al Nar culture|Wadi Suq culture}}
[[File:Cántaro (26738115330).jpg|thumb|left|upright|2nd century [[Common Era|BCE]] era jar found in [[Mleiha Archaeological Centre|Mleiha Archaeological site]] in Sharjah]]

Stone tools recovered reveal a settlement of people from Africa some 127,000 years ago and a stone tool used for butchering animals discovered on the Arabian coast suggests an even older habitation from 130,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.thenational.ae/uae/uae-archaeologist-discovers-the-swiss-army-knife-from-130-000-years-ago|title = UAE archaeologist discovers the Swiss Army knife from 130,000 years ago|last = Pennington|first = Roberta|date = 5 February 2014|work = The National|access-date = 19 February 2017|archive-date = 27 December 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161227134452/http://www.thenational.ae/uae/uae-archaeologist-discovers-the-swiss-army-knife-from-130-000-years-ago|url-status = live}}</ref> In time, lively trading links developed with civilisations in [[Mesopotamia]], Iran, and the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Harappan culture]] of the Indus Valley. This contact persisted and became wider, probably motivated by the trade in copper from the [[Hajar Mountains]], which commenced around 3,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adias-uae.com/ |title=Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey (ADIAS) |publisher=Adias-uae.com |access-date=12 February 2016 |archive-date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302223259/http://www.adias-uae.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Sumerian sources talk of the [[Magan (civilization)|Magan]] civilisation, which has been identified as encompassing the modern UAE and Oman.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Early History of Civilisation|last=Woolley|first=Leonard|publisher=UNESCO|year=1963|page=611}}</ref>

There are six periods of human settlement with distinctive behaviours in the region before Islam, which include the [[Hafit period]] from 3,200 to 2,600 BCE, the [[Umm Al Nar culture]] from 2,600 to 2,000 BCE, and the [[Wadi Suq culture]] from 2,000 to 1,300 BCE. From 1,200 BCE to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctive [[Iron Age in the United Arab Emirates|Iron Ages]] and the [[Mleiha]] period, the area was variously occupied by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] and other forces, and saw the construction of fortified settlements and extensive husbandry thanks to the development of the [[Qanat|''falaj'']] irrigation system.

===Islam===
The spread of [[Islam]] to the northeastern tip of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] is thought to have followed directly from a letter sent by the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] to the rulers of [[Oman]] in 630 CE. This led to a group of rulers travelling to [[Medina]], converting to Islam, and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanids]], who dominated the coast at the time.{{sfnp|Heard-Bey|1996|p=127}} Following the death of Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the [[Persian Gulf]] threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the [[Muslim leaders]]. Caliph [[Abu Bakr]] sent an army from the capital [[Medina]] which completed its reconquest of the territory ([[Ridda wars|the Ridda Wars]]) with the [[Battle of Dibba]] in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost.{{sfnp|Heard-Bey|1996|pp=127–128}} This assured the integrity of the [[Caliphate]] and the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the newly emerging [[Rashidun Caliphate]].

In 637, Julfar (in the area of today's [[Ras Al Khaimah]]) was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref name="AbedHellyer2001">{{cite book|author1=Ibrahim Abed|author2=Peter Hellyer|title=United Arab Emirates, a New Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QcMz3zV0qAMC&pg=PA83|year= 2001|isbn=978-1-900724-47-0|pages=83–84|publisher=Trident Press }}</ref> The area of the [[Al Ain]]/[[Buraimi Oasis]] was known as Tu'am and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior.{{sfnp|Heard-Bey|1996|pp=22–23}}

The earliest [[Christianity|Christian]] site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, an extensive monastic complex on what is now known as [[Sir Bani Yas]] Island and which dates back to the seventh century. Thought to be [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] and built in 600 CE, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 CE.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/ancient-secrets-of-sir-bani-yas-island-unveiled|title = Ancient secrets of Sir Bani Yas unveiled|last = Thomas|first = Jen|date = 12 December 2012|work = The National|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222103357/http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/ancient-secrets-of-sir-bani-yas-island-unveiled|archive-date = 22 December 2015|df = dmy-all}}</ref> It forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity, which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 CE following trade routes. Certainly, by the fifth century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 CE.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Trucial States|last = Hawley|first = Donald|publisher= Allen & Unwin|year = 1971|isbn = 978-0-04-953005-8|location = UK|pages = 48–51}}</ref>

=== Portuguese era ===
{{See also|Battle of the Strait of Hormuz (1553)|Piracy in the Persian Gulf}}
[[File:Forte de doba.jpg|thumb|left|A painting of the [[Portuguese Empire]] {{ill|Doba Fortress|pt|Forte de Doba|vertical-align=sup}} in [[Dibba Al-Hisn]] in 1620]]

The harsh desert environment led to the emergence of the "versatile tribesman", nomadic groups who subsisted due to a variety of economic activities, including animal husbandry, agriculture, and hunting. The seasonal movements of these groups led not only to frequent clashes between groups but also to the establishment of seasonal and semi-seasonal settlements and centres. These formed tribal groupings whose names are still carried by modern Emiratis, including the [[Bani Yas]] and [[Al Nahyan family|Al Bu Falah]] of [[Abu Dhabi]], Al Ain, [[Liwa Oasis|Liwa]], and the west coast; the [[Dhawahir]], Awamir, [[Al Ali (tribe)|Al Ali]], and [[Manasir (tribe)|Manasir]] of the interior; the [[Sharqiyin]] of the east coast; and the [[Al-Qasimi|Qawasim]] to the north.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia|last = Lorimer|first = John|publisher= Government of India|year = 1908|location = Bombay|pages = 1432–1436}}</ref>

With the expansion of European [[colonial empire]]s, Portuguese, English, and [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] forces appeared in the Persian Gulf region. By the 18th century, the Bani Yas confederation was the dominant force in most of the area now known as Abu Dhabi,{{sfnp|Heard-Bey|1996|p=43}}<ref>{{ cite journal | first=Kashf | last=Al Gumma | title=Annals of Oman from Early times to the year 1728 AD | journal= Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal | date= 1874}}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | last=Ibn Ruzaiq | translator= GP Badger | title= History of the Imams and Sayids of Oman | place= London | date= 1871}}</ref> while the Northern [[Al-Qasimi|Al Qawasim]] (Al Qasimi) dominated maritime commerce. The Portuguese maintained an influence over the coastal settlements, building [[Fortification|forts]] in the wake of the bloody 16th-century conquests of coastal communities by [[Afonso de Albuquerque|Albuquerque]] and the Portuguese commanders who followed him – particularly on the east coast at [[Muscat]], [[Sohar]], and [[Khor Fakkan]].{{sfnp|Heard-Bey|1996|p=282}}

The southern coast of the Persian Gulf was known to the British as the "[[History of the United Arab Emirates|Pirate Coast]]",<ref>{{ cite book | last=Baker | first= Randall | date= 1979 | title= King Husain and the Kingdom of Hejaz | publisher= The Oleander Press | place=Great Britain}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The British Threat to the Ottoman Presence in the Persian Gulf during the Era of Abdülhamid II and the Responses toward it| last= Biral | first= Bilal Emre|publisher= Middle East Technical University|place=Ankara|date=2009|citeseerx = 10.1.1.633.1663}}</ref> as boats of the Al Qawasim federation harassed British-flagged shipping from the 17th century into the 19th.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waynemadsenreport.com/articles/20081102_3 |date=3 November 2008 |title=The UAE is the old Pirate Coast. Not much has changed. |work=Wayne Madsen Report |access-date=23 June 2009 |archive-date=8 December 2011 |archive-url=http://web.archive.bibalex.org/web/20111208145256/http://www.waynemadsenreport.com/articles/20081102_3 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The charge of piracy is disputed by modern Emirati historians, including the current ruler of Sharjah, [[Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi|Sheikh Sultan Al Qasimi]], in his 1986 book ''The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf |last=Al Qasimi |first=Sultan |publisher=Croom Helm |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-7099-2106-6 |location=UK}}</ref>
[[File:Persian Gulf 1507-1750.gif|alt=|thumb|Purple – [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] in the Persian Gulf in the 16th and 17th century. Main cities, ports, and routes.]]
[[File:Ras Al Khaimah under attack, 1809 01.jpg|thumb|A painting depicting the burning of the coastal town and port of [[Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah]] during the [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1809]]]]

British expeditions to protect their Indian trade routes led to campaigns against Ras Al Khaimah and other harbours along the coast, including the [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1809]] and the more successful [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1819|campaign of 1819]]. The following year, Britain and a number of local rulers signed a [[General Maritime Treaty of 1820|maritime truce]], giving rise to the term [[Trucial States]], which came to define the status of the coastal emirates. A further treaty was signed in 1843 and in 1853, the [[Perpetual Maritime Truce]] was agreed. To this was added the 'Exclusive Agreements', signed in 1892, which made the [[Trucial States]] a British protectorate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.na.ae/en/education/historicalperiods/britishprince.aspx|title=British Era|website=National Archives of the United Arab Emirates|archive-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718144851/http://www.na.ae/en/education/historicalperiods/britishprince.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Under the 1892 treaty, the trucial sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the British and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the British without their consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack. British maritime policing meant that pearling fleets could operate in relative security. However, the British prohibition of the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] meant an important source of income was lost to some sheikhs and merchants.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/persian-gulf-states/84.htm United Arab Emirates – The Economy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214091633/http://countrystudies.us/persian-gulf-states/84.htm |date=14 December 2010 }}. [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]. Retrieved 14 July 2013.</ref>

In 1869, the Qubaisat tribe settled at [[Khor Al Adaid]] and tried to enlist the support of the Ottomans. Khor Al Adaid was claimed by Abu Dhabi at that time, a claim supported by the British. In 1906, the British Political Resident, [[Percy Cox]], confirmed in writing to the ruler of Abu Dhabi, [[Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan]] ('Zayed the Great'), that Khor Al Adaid belonged to his sheikhdom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morton|first1=Michael Quentin|title=Keepers of the Golden Shore: A History of the United Arab Emirates|year=2016|publisher=Reaktion Books|location=London|isbn=978-1-78023-580-6|pages=49–50|url=http://www.reaktionbooks.co.uk/display.asp?ISB=9781780235806|access-date=19 February 2017|archive-date=20 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220094206/http://www.reaktionbooks.co.uk/display.asp?ISB=9781780235806|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== British era and discovery of oil ===
{{See also|Persian Gulf campaign of 1809|Persian Gulf campaign of 1819|General Maritime Treaty of 1820|Trucial States}}
[[File:Dhayah Fort showing hilltop location.jpg|thumb|[[Dhayah Fort]] at the hill top. In 1819 it was the last [[Al-Qasimi]] stronghold to fall in the [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1819]]. The fall of Dhayah was to pave the way for the signing of the [[General Maritime Treaty of 1820]].]]

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the [[Pearl hunting|pearling industry]] thrived, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=Robert |date=2005 |title=The History and Prehistory of Pearling in the Persian Gulf |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=139–209 |doi=10.1163/1568520054127149 |jstor=25165089 |issn=0022-4995}}</ref> The [[World War I|First World War]] had a severe impact on the industry, but it was the [[economic depression]] of the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the invention of the [[cultured pearl]], that wiped out the trade. The remnants of the trade eventually faded away shortly after the [[World War II|Second World War]], when the newly independent [[Government of India]] imposed heavy taxation on imported pearls. The decline of pearling resulted in extreme economic hardship in the Trucial States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uaeinteract.com/history/trad/trd08.asp |title=UAE History & Traditions: Pearls & pearling |work=UAEinteract |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206103534/http://www.uaeinteract.com/history/trad/trd08.asp |archive-date=6 February 2016 }}</ref>

In 1922, the British government secured undertakings from the rulers of the Trucial States not to sign concessions with foreign companies without their consent. Aware of the potential for the development of natural resources such as oil, following finds in Persia (from 1908) and Mesopotamia (from 1927), a British-led oil company, the [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] (IPC), showed an interest in the region. The [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]] (APOC, later to become [[BP|British Petroleum]], or BP) had a 23.75% share in IPC. From 1935, onshore concessions to explore for oil were granted by local rulers, with APOC signing the first one on behalf of Petroleum Concessions Ltd (PCL), an associate company of IPC.<ref>{{Cite book|title = From Pearls to Oil|last = Heard|first = David|publisher= Motivate|year = 2013|isbn = 978-1-86063-311-9|location = UAE|pages = 41–42}}</ref> APOC was prevented from developing the region alone because of the restrictions of the [[Red Line Agreement]], which required it to operate through IPC. A number of options between PCL and the trucial rulers were signed, providing useful revenue for communities experiencing poverty following the collapse of the pearl trade. However, the wealth of oil which the rulers could see from the revenues accruing to surrounding countries remained elusive. The first bore holes in Abu Dhabi were drilled by IPC's operating company, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd (PDTC) at Ras Sadr in 1950, with a {{convert|13000|ft|m|abbr=off|adj=mid|-deep}} bore hole taking a year to drill and turning out dry, at the tremendous cost at the time of £1 million.

[[File:Mid-20th century Dubai.JPG|thumb|left|Dubai in 1950: the area in this photo shows [[Bur Dubai]] in the foreground (centered on Al-Fahidi Fort), [[Deira, Dubai|Deira]] in middle-right on the other side of the creek, and [[Al Shindagha]] (left) and [[Al Ras, Dubai|Al Ras]] (right) in the background across the creek, from Deira.]]
The British set up a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The seven [[sheikh]]s of the [[Emirates of the United Arab Emirates|emirates]] then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. In 1952, they formed the Trucial States Council,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nasibbitar.net/adi_sr/DocumentsArticle4.jpg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803020019/http://nasibbitar.net/adi_sr/DocumentsArticle4.jpg|archive-date=3 August 2008|url-status=usurped|title=Al Khaleej News Paper}}</ref> and appointed [[Adi Bitar|Adi Al Bitar]], Dubai's [[Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum|Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum]]'s legal advisor, as secretary general and legal advisor to the council. The council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/ae_tsc.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429011257/https://www.fotw.info/flags/ae_tsc.html |archive-date=29 April 2011 |title=Trucial States Council until 1971 (United Arab Emirates) |publisher=Flags of the World |url-status=live }}{{user-generated inline |date=November 2023}}</ref> The tribal nature of society and the lack of definition of borders between emirates frequently led to disputes, settled either through mediation or, more rarely, force. The [[Trucial Oman Scouts]] was a small military force used by the British to keep the peace.

In 1953, a subsidiary of [[BP]], D'Arcy Exploration Ltd, obtained an offshore concession from the ruler of Abu Dhabi. BP joined with [[Total SE|Compagnie Française des Pétroles]] (later [[Total SE|Total]]) to form operating companies, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA) and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd (DUMA). A number of undersea oil surveys were carried out, including one led by the famous marine explorer [[Jacques Cousteau]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cousteau|first1=Jacques|title=Calypso explores for underwater oil|url=https://www.librarything.com/work/18080895|journal=National Geographic Magazine|date=August 1955|volume=CVIII|issue=2|access-date=19 February 2017|author-link=Jacques Cousteau|archive-date=20 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220093825/https://www.librarything.com/work/18080895|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morton|first1=Michael Quentin|title=Calypso in the Arabian Gulf: Jacques Cousteau's Undersea Survey of 1954|journal=Liwa|date=June 2015|volume=7|issue=13|pages=3–28|url=https://www.academia.edu/13056568|access-date=27 November 2016|archive-date=26 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426051607/https://www.academia.edu/13056568|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1958, a floating platform rig was towed from [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]], and positioned over the [[Umm Shaif oil field|Umm Shaif]] pearl bed, in Abu Dhabi waters, where drilling began. In March, it struck oil in the Upper Thamama rock formation. This was the first commercial discovery of the Trucial Coast, leading to the first exports of oil in 1962. ADMA made further offshore discoveries at Zakum and elsewhere, and other companies made commercial finds such as the [[Fateh Oil Field|Fateh oilfield]] off Dubai and the Mubarak field off Sharjah (shared with Iran).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Butt|first1=Gerald|title=Oil and Gas in the UAE|url=https://www.uaeinteract.com/uaeint_misc/pdf/perspectives/11.pdf|website=UAE Interact|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123003948/http://www.uaeinteract.com/uaeint_misc/pdf/perspectives/11.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015}}</ref>

Meanwhile, onshore exploration was hindered by territorial disputes. In 1955, the [[United Kingdom]] represented Abu Dhabi and Oman in their dispute with Saudi Arabia over the [[Al Buraimi Governorate|Buraimi Oasis]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5444.htm|title=United Arab Emirates (06/07)|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=12 February 2016|archive-date=6 June 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020606162024/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5444.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia seemed to have settled the Abu Dhabi-Saudi [[Territorial dispute|border dispute]], but this has not been ratified.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gray|first1=Matthew|title=Global Security Watch – Saudi Arabia|year= 2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara|isbn=978-0-313-38699-2|page=99|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxvFBAAAQBAJ}}</ref> The UAE's border with Oman was ratified in 2008.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/government/historic-uae-oman-accord-involves-272km-of-border-1.119592|title = Historic UAE-Oman accord involves 272&nbsp;km of border|date = 22 July 2008|work = Gulf News|access-date = 19 February 2017|archive-date = 29 November 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141129030925/http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/government/historic-uae-oman-accord-involves-272km-of-border-1.119592|url-status = live}}</ref>

PDTC continued its onshore exploration away from the disputed area, drilling five more bore holes that were also dry. However, on 27 October 1960, the company discovered oil in commercial quantities at the Murban No. 3 well on the coast near Tarif.<ref>{{Cite book|title = From Pearls to Oil|last = Heard|first = David|publisher= Motivate|year = 2013|isbn = 978-1-86063-311-9|location = UAE|pages = 413–416}}</ref> In 1962, PDTC became the [[Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company]]. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan]], undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals, and roads. When Dubai's oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh [[Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum]], the ruler of Dubai, was able to invest the revenues from the limited reserves found to spark the diversification drive that would create the modern [[global city]] of Dubai.<ref name="bbc.co.uk" />

=== Independence ===
{{See also|Unification of the United Arab Emirates|Seizure of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs|Treaty of Jeddah (1974)}}
[[File:Flag-hoisting at the Union Declaration.jpg|thumb|left|Historic photo depicting the first hoisting of the United Arab Emirates flag by the rulers of the emirates at the Union House in Dubai on 2 December 1971]]

By 1966, it had become clear that the British government could no longer afford to administer and protect the [[Trucial States]], what is now the United Arab Emirates. British [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Members of Parliament]] (MPs) debated the preparedness of the [[Royal Navy]] to defend the [[sheikhdom]]s. On 24 January 1968, British Prime Minister [[Harold Wilson]] announced the government's decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister [[Edward Heath]], to end the treaty relationships with the seven trucial sheikhdoms. Days after the announcement, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan]], fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by offering to pay the full costs of keeping the [[British Armed Forces]] in the Emirates. The British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government rejected the offer.<ref>{{cite web |author=Gornall, Jonathan |date=2 December 2011 |url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/sun-sets-on-british-empire-as-uae-raises-its-flag#page5 |title=Sun sets on British Empire as UAE raises its flag |work=The National |location=Abu Dhabi |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629152914/http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/sun-sets-on-british-empire-as-uae-raises-its-flag#page5 |url-status=live }}</ref> After [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] MP [[Goronwy Roberts, Baron Goronwy-Roberts|Goronwy Roberts]] informed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a union of Arab emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://guide.theemiratesnetwork.com/basics/history_of_the_emirates.php |title=History the United Arab Emirates (UAE)&nbsp;– TEN Guide |work=Guide.theemiratesnetwork.com |date=11 February 1972 |access-date=23 June 2009 |archive-date=8 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608021436/http://guide.theemiratesnetwork.com/basics/history_of_the_emirates.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Fears of vulnerability were realised the day before independence. An Iranian destroyer group broke formation from an exercise in the lower Gulf, sailing to the [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs|Tunb islands]]. The islands were [[Seizure of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs|taken by force]], civilians and Arab defenders alike allowed to flee. A British warship stood idle during the course of the invasion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tonb |title=Tonb Islands (Greater and Lesser), two tiny islands of arguable strategic importance in the eastern Persian Gulf, south of the western tip of Qešm island |last1=Mirfendereski |first1=Guive |date=25 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704222708/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tonb |archive-date=4 July 2015 }}</ref> A destroyer group approached the island of [[Abu Musa]] as well. But there, Sheikh [[Khalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimi]] had already negotiated with the Iranian shah, and the island was quickly leased to Iran for $3 million a year. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia laid claim to swathes of Abu Dhabi.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Krane |first1=Jim |year=2009 |title=City of Gold: Dubai and the Dream of Capitalism |pages=81–84}}</ref> It was not until 1974 that a [[Treaty of Jeddah (1974)|border agreement]] was signed with Saudi Arabia, formally demarcating the frontiers between the UAE and Saudi Arabia. The UAE's sense of threat from Iran influenced its financial support for [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]] during the [[Iran–Iraq War]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2025 |title=United Arab Emirates - Gulf, Sheikhdoms, Federation {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Arab-Emirates/History |access-date=21 April 2025 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Originally intended to be part of the proposed Federation of Arab Emirates, Bahrain became independent in August, and Qatar in September 1971. When the British-Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on 1 December 1971, both emirates became fully independent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-1021.html |title=Bahrain&nbsp;– Independence |publisher=Country-data.com |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=26 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226201621/http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-1021.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On 2 December 1971, six of the emirates (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah, and Umm Al Quwain) agreed to enter into a union named the United Arab Emirates. [[Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah|Ras al-Khaimah]] joined later, on 10 January 1972.<ref>{{cite book|author=Smith, Simon C. |title=Britain's Revival and Fall in the Gulf: Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial States, 1950–71|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_qCeBV9IW0C&pg=PA64|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-33192-0|page=64}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O209-TrucialOmanorTrucialStats.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119060814/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O209-TrucialOmanorTrucialStats.html|archive-date=19 November 2011 |title=Trucial Oman or Trucial States&nbsp;– Origin of Trucial Oman or Trucial States &#124; Encyclopedia.com: Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com }}</ref> In February 1972, the [[Federal National Council]] (FNC) was created; it was a 40-member consultative body appointed by the seven rulers. The UAE joined the [[Arab League]] on 6 December 1971 and the [[United Nations]] on 9 December.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Now the Dust Has Settled|last=De Butts|first=Freddie|publisher=Tabb House|year=1995|isbn=978-1-873951-13-2|page=228}}</ref> It was a founding member of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] in May 1981, with Abu Dhabi hosting the first [[GCC Summit|GCC summit]].

=== Post-independence period ===
[[File:Burj Khalifa (worlds tallest building) and the Dubai skyline (25781049892).jpg|thumb|Skyline of [[Dubai]]]]
The UAE supported military operations by the US and other [[Coalition of the Gulf War|coalition states]] engaged in the [[Gulf War]] against [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Ba'athist Iraq]] (1991), as well as operations supporting the Global [[War on Terror]] for the [[Horn of Africa]] at [[Al Dhafra Air Base]] located outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 Persian [[Gulf War]] and [[Operation Northern Watch]]. The country had already signed a [[military]] defence agreement with the U.S. in 1994 and one with France in 1995.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl31641.pdf |author=Prados, Alfred B. | date=2002 |title= Iraqi Challenges and U.S. Responses: March 1991 through October 2002 |url-status=unfit |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060818063026/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl31641.pdf |archive-date= 18 August 2006| publisher= Library of Congress}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Foley, Sean |url= http://www.gloria-center.org/meria/1999/03/foley.pdf |title= The UAE: Political Issues and Security Dilemmas |journal= Middle East Review of International Affairs |volume= 3 |issue= 1 |date= March 1999 |access-date= 8 April 2013 |archive-date= 13 June 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130613164952/http://www.gloria-center.org/meria/1999/03/foley.pdf |url-status= dead }}</ref> In January 2008, France and the UAE signed a deal allowing France to set up a permanent military base in the emirate of Abu Dhabi.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14704414 |title=United Arab Emirates profile – Timeline |work=BBC News |date=14 November 2012 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=26 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226130642/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14704414 |url-status=live }}</ref> The UAE joined international military operations in Libya in March 2011.

On 2 November 2004, the UAE's first president, Sheikh [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan]], died. Sheikh [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] was elected as the [[President of the United Arab Emirates|president of the UAE]]. Sheikh [[Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] succeeded Sheikh Khalifa as crown prince of Abu Dhabi.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3975737.stm |title=Veteran Gulf ruler Zayed dies |work=BBC News |date=2 November 2004 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=29 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929223450/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3975737.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2006, Sheikh [[Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum]], the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and Sheikh [[Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum]] assumed both roles.

The first ever national elections were held on 16 December 2006. A number of voters chose half of the members of the [[Federal National Council]]. The UAE has largely escaped the [[Arab Spring]], which other countries have experienced; however, 60 Emirati activists from [[Al Islah (United Arab Emirates)|Al Islah]] were apprehended for an alleged coup attempt and the attempt of the establishment of an [[Islamism|Islamist]] state in the UAE.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news |last=Bakr |first=Amena |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-emirates-courts-norway-idUSBRE96K0AK20130721 |title=Woman jailed in Dubai after reporting rape hopes to warn others |work=Reuters |date=21 July 2013 |access-date=5 November 2013 |archive-date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210075642/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-emirates-courts-norway-idUSBRE96K0AK20130721 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Brotherhood 'sought Islamist state in UAE'|url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/brotherhood-sought-islamist-state-in-uae|access-date=20 November 2012|date=21 September 2012|archive-date=22 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022094439/http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/brotherhood-sought-islamist-state-in-uae|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="amnesty.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde25/0018/2014/en/ |title=United Arab Emirates: Silencing dissent in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) |date=18 November 2014 |publisher=Amnesty International |access-date=12 February 2016 |archive-date=6 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106215938/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde25/0018/2014/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mindful of the protests in nearby Bahrain, in November 2012 the UAE outlawed online mockery of its government or attempts to organise public protests through social media.<ref name="bbc.co.uk" />

On 29 January 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] was confirmed to have [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates|reached the UAE]].<ref name="first case UAE">{{Cite news|last1=Hammond|first1=Ashley|url=https://gulfnews.com/uae/health/watch-how-the-first-coronavirus-case-in-uae-was-cured-1.1581323524356|title=Watch: How the first coronavirus case in UAE was cured|date=10 February 2020|work=Gulf News|access-date=11 February 2020|last2=Chaudhary|first2=Suchitra Bajpai|last3=Hilotin|first3=Jay|archive-date=10 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200210155105/https://gulfnews.com/uae/health/watch-how-the-first-coronavirus-case-in-uae-was-cured-1.1581323524356|url-status=live}}</ref> Two months later, in March, the government announced the closure of shopping malls, schools, and places of worship, in addition to imposing a 24-hour curfew, and suspending all [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]] passenger flights.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/uae/government/coronavirus-uae-shuts-malls-for-two-weeks-1.1584914600541|title=Coronavirus: UAE shuts malls for two weeks|website=Gulf News|date=23 March 2020|access-date=28 March 2024|archive-date=23 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323164723/https://gulfnews.com/uae/government/coronavirus-uae-shuts-malls-for-two-weeks-1.1584914600541|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/10aa229f979a05241ede3c349f5e4d2d |first1=Aya |last1=Batrawy |title=Dubai's Emirates cuts passenger flights to 13 destinations|website=[[Associated Press]]|date=22 March 2020|access-date=28 March 2024|archive-date=30 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530142404/https://apnews.com/10aa229f979a05241ede3c349f5e4d2d|url-status=live}}</ref> This resulted in a major economic downturn, which eventually led to the merger of more than 50% of the UAE's [[:Category:United Arab Emirates federal entities|federal agencies]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/b2d8b670-8fd3-41e7-850b-e0c74302805e |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/b2d8b670-8fd3-41e7-850b-e0c74302805e |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=UAE merges ministries in ambitious government restructuring|access-date=5 July 2020|website=Financial Times|date=5 July 2020|last1=Kerr|first1=Simeon}}</ref>

On 29 August 2020, the UAE established normal diplomatic relations with [[Israel]] and with the help of the [[United States]], they signed the [[Abraham Accords]] with [[Bahrain]].<ref name="BBC859">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-53770859|title=Israel and UAE strike historic deal to normalise relations|work=BBC News|date=13 August 2020|access-date=28 March 2024|archive-date=13 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813152232/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-53770859|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 9 February 2021, the UAE achieved a historic milestone when its probe, named ''[[Emirates Mars Mission|Hope]]'', successfully reached [[Mars]]'s orbit. The UAE became the first country in the [[Arab world]] to reach Mars, the fifth country to successfully reach Mars, and the second country, after an [[Mars Orbiter Mission|Indian probe]], to orbit Mars on its maiden attempt.

On 14 May 2022, Sheikh [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] was elected as the UAE's new president after the death of [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan|Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Who is MBZ, the UAE's new president? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/14/who-is-sheikh-mohammed-bin-zayed-al-nahyan-mbz-uaes-new-president |work=Al Jazeera |language=en |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516064657/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/14/who-is-sheikh-mohammed-bin-zayed-al-nahyan-mbz-uaes-new-president |url-status=live }}</ref>

Under Mohamed bin Zayed, the UAE supported secessionist forces in wars in the MENA region, including southern separatists in Yemen, Khalifa Haftar in Libya and General Mohammed Hamdan Daglo in Sudan. Since the [[Arab Spring]] uprisings in 2011, MbZ adopted an aggressive and militarized approach to protect the UAE’s dominance in the region, leading to fragmentation of concerned states in the Arab world and leaving them with less or no scope of authoritarian restoration. The country moves on a strategy of keeping dissent at bay and exerting influence, meanwhile deepening conflicts, fueling instability and worsening humanitarian crises.<ref>{{cite news|title=The separatist strategy of the United Arab Emirates|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/un-si-proche-orient/article/2025/05/11/la-strategie-separatiste-des-emirats-arabes-unis_6604934_6116995.html |newspaper=Le Monde |date=11 May 2025 |access-date=20 May 2025 |archive-date=14 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250514211113/https://www.lemonde.fr/un-si-proche-orient/article/2025/05/11/la-strategie-separatiste-des-emirats-arabes-unis_6604934_6116995.html |url-status=live}}</ref>